Norse Mythology

The pre-Christian legends and religious beliefs of the Scandinavian people and Northern Germanic tribes, known as Norse or Scandinavian mythology, are characterized by a strong emphasis on physical prowess and military might. These myths were originally passed down orally through odes, sagas, and poetic epics. Our understanding of these myths primarily comes from two works known as the Eddas, as well as other medieval texts that were written down during and after the Christianization of the Norse peoples. The majority of written sources were compiled from accounts recorded in Iceland during the eleventh century C.E.

Throughout Scandinavian folklore, Norse mythology has maintained cultural significance, with certain traditions still being practiced today. This rich mythological tradition continues to serve as a source of inspiration in modern literature and various forms of artwork, such as visual representations, films, comic books, and stage productions.

Sources

Given the repression and persecution of Norse myths and texts during Christian rule, only a limited number of them have managed to survive until the present day. However, certain Christian scholars, particularly Snorri Sturluson (1178-1241 C.E.), recorded some of these tales in works such as the Prose Edda and the Heimskringla. Sturluson, who was a prominent poet, chieftain, and diplomat in Iceland, condensed the extensive sagas into prose retellings, providing a systematic and coherent understanding of Norse mythology. Another significant source for our modern comprehension of Norse mythology is the Poetic Edda, also known as the Elder Edda, which contains various versions of these tales, some of which overlap with the Prose Edda. The Poetic Edda consists of 29 long poems, with 11 focusing on the Germanic deities and the remainder centering around legendary heroes like Sigurd the Volsung.

Although the transcription of the Poetic Edda is believed to have occurred later than the other Edda, the language and poetic forms utilized in the tales seem to have originated centuries earlier. In addition to the Eddas, the Danish Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus is another source, albeit of lesser usefulness due to the author's extensive editorial alterations.

Apart from these sources, there are also surviving legends found in Scandinavian poetry and folklore. Traditional Nordic (skaldic) poetry, some of which can be found in runic inscriptions and books, contains abundant mythological references and allusions. However, many of these poetic and folkloric references were edited after the decline of this poetic form. Some of these references can be cross-referenced with legends found in other Germanic literatures, such as the tale recounted in the Anglo-Saxon Battle of Finnsburgh and the numerous allusions to mythological tales in the Old English poem Deor.

Cosmology

Scandinavians held the belief that the cosmos was divided into nine interconnected realms, with certain realms receiving more mythological attention than others. The most significant division was the tripartite separation of the universe into the realms of the gods (Asgard and Vanaheim, the respective homes of the Aesir and Vanir), the realm of humans (Midgard), and the icy underworld (Niflheim), where Hel, the queen of the underworld, resided. These three realms were supported by a colossal tree called Yggdrasil, with the realm of the gods situated in the upper branches, the realm of humans positioned roughly halfway up the tree (surrounded by an impassable sea), and the underworld nestled among its roots.

To reach Asgard, one had to cross Bifrost, a magical rainbow bridge guarded by Heimdall, the vigilant god who possessed the ability to see and hear over vast distances. Valhalla, Odin's hall located within Asgard, can be considered the Norse equivalent of heaven, serving as the final resting place for the souls of the most esteemed human warriors. To earn a place in Valhalla, one's bravery had to be witnessed by the Valkyries, Odin's mounted female messengers, whose radiant armor was said to create the renowned Aurora Borealis (northern lights).

Among the less significant realms were Muspell, the realm of scorching heat and the home of Surt, a giant with skin of lava and fiery hair; Alfheim, the realm of the elves; Svartálfheim, the abode of the dark elves; Nidavellir, the realm of the dwarves, who were unmatched in their skills as miners and goldsmiths; and Jotunheim, the realm of the Jotun or giants.

The cosmology of Norse mythology also incorporates elements of duality. For instance, night and day have their own mythological counterparts - Dagr/Skinfaxi and Nótt/Hrímfaxi, the sun (Sol) and the pursuing wolf (Skoll), the moon (Mani) and its pursuing wolf (Hati), and the stark opposition between Niflheim and Muspell in the origin and composition of the world.

Supernatural beings

Norse cosmology presents three distinct groups of deities: the Aesir, the Vanir, and the Jotun. The relationship between the Aesir and Vanir is relative, as they have reconciled, exchanged hostages, intermarried, and ruled together following a prolonged war. The primary difference between these groups lies in their respective domains, with the Aesir embodying war and conquest, while the Vanir represent exploration, fertility, and wealth. Notable deities within these clans include Odin, the supreme god; Frigg, Odin's wife and queen of the gods; Thor, the storm god and warrior/hero; Freya, the goddess of beauty and attraction; Heimdall, the vigilant guardian of Asgard; Tyr, the god of combat; Balder, the god of spring and renewal; and Loki, the cunning trickster deity.

In contrast to their relatively peaceful coexistence, the Aesir and Vanir maintain tumultuous relations with the Jotun (also known as Eotenas or Entas in Old English). Often referred to as "giants," although alternative terms such as "trolls" and "demons" have been proposed, the Jotun are typically depicted as repulsive and monstrous beings, akin to the Titans and Gigantes of Greek mythology. Despite these negative associations, the gods are still closely linked to the Jotun, as both the Aesir and Vanir continue to intermarry with them. Furthermore, many of the gods themselves are descendants of giants, such as Loki, who is the offspring of two giants, and Hel, who is half-giantess. The Eddas mention certain giants by name, suggesting that they symbolize natural forces.

Additionally, Norse cosmology includes various other supernatural beings, such as elves, dwarves, and monsters like Fenrir, the colossal wolf, and Jörmungandr, the sea serpent coiled around Midgard. These creatures are described as the offspring of Loki, the trickster god, and a giantess.This mythology, like numerous other polytheistic religions, does not possess the prominent dualism of good and evil found in the monotheistic Middle Eastern traditions. Consequently, Odin and Hel are not regarded as complete opposites, and Loki is not primarily an adversary of the gods, although he does take pleasure in disrupting Thor's plans. Similarly, the giants are not inherently evil, but rather they are characterized as impolite, loud, and uncivilized. Therefore, the existing dualism in this mythology is not a conflict between good and evil, but rather a contrast between order and chaos.

Interactions with Christianity

An important challenge in interpreting Norse mythology arises from the fact that the closest accounts we have to the period before contact with Christianity were written by Christians. Snorri Sturluson, in the thirteenth century, authored the Younger Edda and the Heimskringla, more than two hundred years after Iceland embraced Christianity. Consequently, it is highly likely that Snorri's works are heavily influenced by Christian bias when it comes to the interpretation of Norse myths.

The majority of saga literature originates from Iceland, a relatively small and isolated island. Even within the climate of religious tolerance that prevailed there, Snorri's perspective was fundamentally shaped by his Christian beliefs. The Heimskringla offers intriguing insights into this matter. Snorri presents Odin as a mortal warlord from Asia who gains magical abilities, settles in Sweden, and attains demi-god status after his demise. By undermining Odin's divinity, Snorri proceeds to recount the tale of a pact between Swedish King Aun and Odin, wherein the king sacrifices his sons to extend his own life. Later in the Heimskringla, Snorri meticulously documents the brutal conversion of Scandinavians to Christianity by figures such as Saint Olaf Haraldsson.

In an effort to prevent civil unrest, the Icelandic parliament made the decision to adopt Christianity, although they allowed the practice of heathenry in the privacy of one's home for a number of years. In contrast, Sweden experienced a series of civil wars during the eleventh century, culminating in the destruction of the Temple at Uppsala. Meanwhile, England underwent an earlier and sporadic process of Christianization, rarely resorting to force. The conversion from Norse gods to Christianity was not immediate, as Christian clergy made significant efforts to convince the population that the Norse gods were malevolent beings. However, their success was limited, and in most of Scandinavia, the gods were not perceived as evil in the popular imagination. The gradual nature of Christianization is exemplified by two settlements in close proximity to both secular and religious authorities on the Swedish island of Lovön, where archaeological studies of graves indicate that the process took approximately 150-200 years. Although there are few accounts from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century, clergy members such as Olaus Magnus (1555) wrote about the challenges they faced in eradicating the old beliefs. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Swedish folklorists documented the beliefs of commoners, revealing numerous surviving traditions related to the gods of Norse mythology. However, by this time, these traditions had become detached from their original context, resulting in a loss of the cohesive narratives found in Snorri's accounts. Most of the gods had been forgotten, with only Odin, associated with hunting, and Thor, known for slaying giants, featuring prominently in legends. Freyja was mentioned infrequently, and Baldr only survived in legends tied to place names.