Evolution
From Chaos to Crust: Understanding Earth's Formation 2 Billion Years Ago Part 1.
Two billion years ago, Earth was a vastly different place. Life thrived, but mass extinction was imminent. An invisible killer lurked, poised to alter history profoundly. This epoch had significant implications for the environment, the food we consume, and the air we breathe today. Survival in this challenging landscape would have been difficult. During this period, nearly all life faced extinction.
Welcome to Earth two billion years ago. At this point, the planet was approximately halfway to its current age. As you descend into this prehistoric era, you will observe land masses and some ice chunks amidst water. These landforms differ significantly from today's continents, but this will change over time.
Upon landing, you will encounter a bleak and rocky terrain. No plants, trees, or vegetation are present, nor are there any signs of animals. This era predates the emergence of complex multicellular life forms. The only organisms that existed during this time were microorganisms. While this may seem unremarkable, it is worth noting that no predators posed a threat.
Before disembarking, you must don a suit equipped with oxygen tanks. Although oxygen is present in the atmosphere, the levels are insufficient for comfortable breathing—less than 10% of today's oxygen concentration. When Earth formed, its atmosphere consisted primarily of carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor.
As you step outside, you will observe the still water around you. It contains no fish, but is filled with green, slimy substances. This material consists predominantly of cyanobacteria, which are among the most significant bacteria to have ever existed on Earth.
Cyanobacteria are essential to the air we breathe. However, they also played a significant role in the largest extinction event in Earth's history. To understand this event, we must travel back approximately 500 million years. This requires us to go even further back in time, by an additional half billion years. At this point in Earth's history, the atmosphere contained no oxygen. The planet would appear vastly different from what we recognize today. Nevertheless, some fundamental elements that exist today have been present for billions of years.
For instance, uranium is a naturally occurring element formed during the early stages of the universe. It has been part of the Earth since its inception. According to experts at Uranium Royalty Corporation, a single pellet of refined uranium, roughly the size of a fingernail, contains energy equivalent to that of 149 gallons of oil. This is a substantial amount of energy. In today's world, such energy resources are increasingly important.
Approximately 2.5 billion years ago, Earth experienced a period referred to as the "Calm" prior to a mass extinction event. During this time, the sun was cooler, and temperatures were mild. This environment facilitated the presence of abundant liquid water and the development of single-celled organisms, such as cyanobacteria. These cyanobacteria acquired the capability to photosynthesize, leading to the production of oxygen. This increase in oxygen began to alter Earth's atmosphere. As oxygen levels rose, it became toxic to many existing bacteria. Consequently, the Great Oxidation Event resulted in the extinction of 99% of life on Earth. The elevation of oxygen levels also contributed to a decrease in greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane. This decline caused a significant reduction in temperatures, triggering the Huronian glaciation, which persisted for approximately 200 million years. Despite the severe conditions, certain microscopic life forms managed to endure during this era, anticipating a subsequent warming of the planet.
Approximately two billion years ago, Earth experienced significant geological and biological transformations. This period was characterized by extensive volcanic eruptions, a warmer sun, and the development of the supercontinent Nuna. The sun's heightened luminosity facilitated the melting of ice sheets. Concurrent volcanic activity released water vapor and carbon dioxide, resulting in a warmer atmosphere. This rising temperature fostered a revival of life on Earth. Additionally, the volcanic eruptions contributed to the formation of natural diamonds.
More on part 2...
About the Creator
N Korea’s Kim Oversees Hypersonic Missile Tests, Cites Geopolitical Crisis
North Korean leader Kim Jong Un has personally overseen a new round of hypersonic missile tests, warning that an intensifying “geopolitical crisis” requires the country to rapidly strengthen its nuclear-capable military forces. The tests, announced by state media, underline Pyongyang’s determination to push ahead with advanced weapons development despite international sanctions and growing concern from neighboring countries and global powers. The latest launch marks another significant step in North Korea’s pursuit of hypersonic technology — a class of weapons that are faster, more maneuverable, and far harder to intercept than traditional ballistic missiles. Kim’s appearance at the test site sends a clear political message: North Korea considers its military buildup not just a strategic option, but a necessity in what it describes as an increasingly hostile global environment. Kim Jong Un’s Direct Involvement According to North Korean state media, Kim Jong Un personally supervised the missile launch, accompanied by senior military officials and scientists. His presence at weapons tests is often carefully staged, but it also signals the importance Pyongyang attaches to the program. Kim reportedly praised the scientists and engineers involved, calling the successful test “a major leap forward” in strengthening the country’s strategic deterrence. He emphasized that the development of hypersonic weapons is a key part of North Korea’s long-term defense plan, especially as tensions rise on the Korean Peninsula and beyond. By overseeing the test himself, Kim reinforced the message that these weapons are not experimental side projects, but core elements of the regime’s military doctrine. What Makes Hypersonic Missiles So Concerning? Hypersonic missiles typically travel at more than five times the speed of sound and are capable of maneuvering during flight. This combination makes them extremely difficult for existing missile defense systems to track and intercept. Unlike traditional ballistic missiles, which follow a predictable arc, hypersonic glide vehicles can alter their trajectory mid-flight, reducing warning time for targeted countries. This has made hypersonic technology a focal point of global arms competition, with the United States, China, and Russia all investing heavily in similar systems. North Korea claims its latest missile demonstrated improved stability, precision, and maneuverability — features that, if accurate, would significantly enhance its strike capabilities. “Geopolitical Crisis” and Pyongyang’s Narrative Kim Jong Un framed the missile test within what he described as a deepening geopolitical crisis, accusing the United States and its allies of increasing military pressure on North Korea. He cited joint military exercises between the US and South Korea, expanded regional missile defense systems, and what Pyongyang calls “hostile policy” as justification for accelerating weapons development. North Korea consistently argues that its missile tests are defensive in nature, portraying them as responses to external threats rather than acts of provocation. State media often uses such language to rally domestic support and legitimize continued military spending despite economic hardship. This narrative also serves a diplomatic purpose, positioning North Korea as a country acting out of necessity rather than aggression — a claim strongly disputed by much of the international community. Regional and Global Reactions The latest test has once again raised alarm in South Korea, Japan, and the United States. Officials in Seoul condemned the launch as a clear violation of United Nations Security Council resolutions, which ban North Korea from developing ballistic missile technology. Japan said the test posed a serious threat to regional stability, while US officials reiterated their commitment to defending allies in the region. Analysts warn that hypersonic weapons, even in limited numbers, could complicate existing defense strategies and increase the risk of miscalculation during periods of heightened tension. China and Russia, while officially calling for restraint, have also urged dialogue rather than confrontation, reflecting their broader opposition to increased US military presence in the region. A Pattern of Escalation This test fits into a broader pattern of accelerated weapons development under Kim Jong Un. Over the past few years, North Korea has tested: Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) Submarine-launched ballistic missiles Cruise missiles with nuclear capability Solid-fuel rocket systems Hypersonic missiles are now emerging as a centerpiece of this strategy. Military experts believe Pyongyang is seeking to diversify its arsenal to ensure that at least some weapons could penetrate enemy defenses in a conflict scenario. Kim has repeatedly stated that North Korea will continue strengthening its nuclear forces until it believes its security is guaranteed — a position that leaves little room for immediate diplomatic breakthroughs. Diplomacy at a Standstill Formal nuclear negotiations between North Korea and the United States have remained stalled for years. Previous talks collapsed over disagreements on sanctions relief and the scope of denuclearization. In the absence of dialogue, Pyongyang has increasingly relied on missile tests to assert leverage and signal strength. Each launch reinforces the sense that North Korea is moving forward regardless of international pressure. Observers note that hypersonic missile tests may also be intended to influence domestic politics, projecting an image of technological progress and leadership strength to the North Korean public. What Comes Next? Analysts warn that continued testing could lead to a dangerous cycle of action and reaction. More missile launches may prompt expanded military exercises by the US and its allies, which in turn could trigger further tests by North Korea. At the same time, the growing sophistication of Pyongyang’s weapons raises urgent questions about the future of arms control in East Asia. Hypersonic technology, in particular, challenges existing security frameworks and could drive a new phase of regional arms competition. Conclusion: A Dangerous Signal to the World Kim Jong Un’s decision to personally oversee hypersonic missile tests sends a powerful and troubling message. By citing a “geopolitical crisis,” North Korea is signaling that it sees confrontation, not compromise, as the defining feature of the current global landscape. As tensions remain high and diplomacy remains frozen, the international community faces a stark reality: North Korea is not slowing down its weapons development. Instead, it is moving faster — and into more dangerous territory. Whether this latest test becomes another step toward escalation or a catalyst for renewed dialogue will depend on how regional powers respond in the days and months ahead.
By Muhammad Hassan7 days ago in Earth
Regenerative Agriculture's Quiet Revolution
by Futoshi Tachino Regenerative agriculture — a holistic approach to farming that restores soil health, biodiversity, and resilience — has rapidly gained traction in recent years. This shift remains largely underappreciated by the public; in a 2024 survey, around 43% of U.S. consumers had never heard of regenerative agriculture (and another 28% had only minimal awareness) [4]. Despite this low profile, tangible developments in regenerative farming are delivering robust results. Farmers are proving that it’s possible to maintain high yields with fewer chemical inputs, improve profitability, and enhance ecological outcomes — all at once. This article explores the evidence-backed progress of regenerative agriculture across regions, the policies and technologies driving its adoption, and why this overlooked sustainability success story deserves greater recognition.
By Futoshi Tachinoabout 8 hours ago in Earth
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