War of Independence (1877-1878)

Romania and its path to sovereignty: a chronicle of the War of Independence (1877-1878)

Introduction: A Nation Awaiting its Destiny

The 1870s found Romania, the young state born from the Union of the Romanian Principalities, in a delicate and paradoxical political situation. Although a modern state structure, a ruler (Carol I), and a constitution existed, the country was, formally, under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. This state of affairs, a historical humiliation and a hindrance to development, created in the elites and the people a burning desire to achieve absolute independence. It was not just about political liberation, but about a validation of national identity, a de jure entry into the ranks of Europe's free nations.

But independence was not offered, it had to be conquered. The international context was volatile, and the great European powers—Russia, Austria, Germany, France, and Great Britain—had their own interests in the "Eastern Question," that is, in the fate of the declining Ottoman Empire. Russia, in particular, wanted to extend its influence in the Balkans, and Romania, with its strategic position on the Danube, was an essential piece in this European chess game. Thus, the path to sovereignty was a winding one, marked by diplomacy, negotiations, and also by a feverish military preparation. This is a chronicle of those times, a story of courage, sacrifice, and the birth of a free Romania, a story that, although it ended successfully, left behind a testament of heroism and compromises.

Chapter I: The Prelude to an Inevitable Conflict

The events that precipitated the War of Independence began far from Romania's borders, in the Ottoman provinces in the Balkans. In 1875, Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted against Turkish rule. The revolt was suppressed with extreme brutality, which sparked outrage among European public opinion. A year later, in 1876, Bulgaria also rose up in arms, and the massacres committed by the Ottomans further consolidated international antipathy toward the Porte. In this context, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire, a courageous move, but one doomed to failure without substantial outside help.

Russia, a long-time rival of the Ottomans and a self-proclaimed protector of the Orthodox Slavic peoples, saw in this situation a golden opportunity. Tsar Alexander II decided to intervene militarily, under the pretext of defending Christians in the Balkans. Russia's plan involved crossing Romanian territory to reach the Danube and attack the Ottoman Empire.

For Romania, the decision to get involved or remain neutral was a turning point. Some politicians, such as Ion Brătianu, saw an alliance with Russia as the only chance to gain independence. Others, like Mihail Kogălniceanu, had reservations, fearing Russia's expansionist intentions and a possible occupation. However, the majority of the political class understood that absolute neutrality was impossible. Russian occupation, even with Romania's consent, would have been inevitable. Thus, an alliance with Russia was decided upon, formalized by the Romanian-Russian Convention of April 4, 1877. Through this agreement, Romania allowed Russian troops to cross its territory, and Russia guaranteed the country's territorial integrity. Although the Convention did not explicitly mention independence, it was clear that a war alongside Russia against the Ottomans would eventually lead to the breaking of suzerainty ties.

Romania's military preparation was also a crucial factor. Under the firm leadership of Prince Carol I, the Romanian army, relatively modernized after the Prussian model, was ready for battle. Carol I's efforts to professionalize the army and equip it with modern military technology, although limited by financial resources, transformed a modest military force into an army capable of fighting on an equal footing with the regular troops of the great empires. The mobilization, decreed in the spring of 1877, brought tens of thousands of young people under arms, filled with fervent patriotism and the desire to fight for national freedom.

Chapter II: The Declaration of Independence - A New Page in History

The historic moment of the proclamation of Romania's independence took place on May 9/21, 1877. The action came as a direct response to the Ottoman Empire's refusal to accept Romania's full autonomy and to withdraw troops from its borders. Under the pressure of events and an enthusiastic public opinion, the Romanian Parliament met to validate, by law, a de facto state of affairs that already existed in the national consciousness.

During a memorable session, Foreign Minister Mihail Kogălniceanu delivered a historic speech, full of emotion and impeccable political logic. He pointed out that "in a state of war, with broken ties, we are independent; we are a self-sufficient nation." His speech was met with a storm of applause. The Chamber of Deputies unanimously voted to break all suzerainty ties with the Ottoman Empire.

This moment, of fundamental importance, transformed a vassal country into a sovereign state. The proclamation of independence was an act of political courage, a direct defiance of the Ottoman Power, but also an immense risk, as it obliged Romania to defend its new legal status with the force of arms.

However, international recognition of independence was still a long way off. The Great Powers looked on with skepticism, with Britain in particular worried about the growing Russian influence. Nevertheless, the act of May 9 had a strong echo among the peoples of the Balkans and strengthened the morale of the Romanian army, which now knew what it was fighting for: not just for an ally, but for its own freedom.Chapter III: The War on the Danube Front

Immediately after the declaration of independence, the Romanian army went into action. The war was not just a matter of honor, but also a brutal reality. The first phase of the conflict took place on the Danube front, where Romanian troops had the role of defending the northern bank of the river and supporting the crossing of Russian troops to the southern bank.

The Romanian artillery played a crucial role in this stage, successfully shelling the Ottoman fortresses at Vidin, Rahova, and Nicopole. The famous Krupp cannons, acquired by Prince Carol I, proved to be extremely effective, neutralizing the Turkish batteries and facilitating the crossing of the Danube by the Russians. A moment of heroism was also the sinking, at Măcin, of the Turkish monitor "Seyfi" by Romanian torpedo boats, an act of courage that demonstrated the ability of the Romanian army to fight against a much superior naval force.

However, the peak of the military campaign was decided at Plevna.

Chapter IV: The Siege of Plevna - A Battle for Glory

Plevna, a small strategic city in northern Bulgaria, became the theater of war where the fate of the conflict was decided. The Ottoman army, led by the skilled Osman Pasha, managed to fortify the city, turning it into an invincible redoubt. Three Russian assaults had already failed, with huge losses, and the Russian army was in a critical situation.At this turning point, Grand Duke Nicholas, the supreme commander of the Russian troops, sent a desperate telegram to Prince Carol I: "The Turks, gathering the best troops, are crushing us at Plevna. There is nothing left to do. Come with your troops and fight alongside us! You are our only support!"

This request was a turning point. It was an implicit recognition of the military value of the Romanian army and a unique opportunity to show the whole world that Romania's independence was deserved through the sacrifice of blood. Carol I accepted, and the Romanian troops, led by General Alexandru Cernat, set off for Plevna.On August 27, 1877, Prince Carol I took supreme command of the Romanian-Russian armies on the Plevna front. It was a moment of national pride and major strategic importance.

The siege lasted for several months. The Romanian troops were deployed in the Grivița sector, a strategic but extremely difficult position. The famous battle for Redoubt Grivița I went down in history as a symbol of Romanian courage. Two Romanian assaults were repulsed with heavy losses, but the Romanian soldiers, led by the brave Captain Valter Mărăcineanu, did not let themselves be defeated. The third time, after a furious assault, Redoubt Grivița I was conquered, a turning point in the siege of Plevna. The losses were enormous, but the victory was categorical.During the siege, the Romanian troops demonstrated incredible resilience. They fought in extremely difficult conditions, under constant fire from Ottoman artillery and in harsh winter conditions. The Romanian sacrifice was recognized even by the enemies. In a letter to a friend, an Ottoman officer noted: "The Romanians fight like lions. Their courage is unmatched."The siege of Plevna ended on November 28, 1877, when Osman Pasha, faced with a lack of supplies and a superior assault force, attempted a final breakout. He failed. The Ottoman army surrendered, and Osman Pasha was taken prisoner. The fall of Plevna opened the way for the Russians to the Balkans, effectively marking the victory in the war.

Chapter V: The Battle of Smârdan and Vidin

The war did not end at Plevna. The Romanian army continued to fight, participating in the battles of Rahova and Smârdan, another important battle that demonstrated its value. At Smârdan, the Romanian troops conquered a powerful Ottoman fortification, a victory with a high price, but one that consolidated Romania's status as a regional military power.

Subsequently, the Romanian army participated in the siege of the fortress of Vidin, an Ottoman stronghold on the bank of the Danube. The siege lasted until the end of the war, and the capitulation of Vidin represented the last Romanian victory in the campaign. These battles, although eclipsed by the scale and strategic importance of Plevna, were of crucial importance for consolidating the prestige of the Romanian army.

Chapter VI: A price for victory - The peace treaties

The military victory of Romania and Russia was consecrated by the Treaty of San Stefano (February 1878) and, subsequently, by the Congress of Berlin (June 1878). Although it was a victory of arms, the peace negotiations were complicated and full of compromises.The Treaty of San Stefano recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro and created a Greater Bulgaria, a vassal state of Russia, which extended to the Aegean Sea. However, this treaty was perceived as a threat to the balance of power in Europe, especially by Great Britain and Austria-Hungary. Thus, the Congress of Berlin was convened to revise the treaty.The Congress of Berlin was a disappointment for Romania. The Great Powers confirmed Romania's independence, but imposed a humiliating condition: the cession of southern Bessarabia (the counties of Cahul, Bolgrad, and Ismail) to Russia. In exchange, Romania received Dobrogea, the Danube Delta, and Snake Island. This territorial cession was received with deep indignation in Bucharest. Mihail Kogălniceanu vehemently protested, pointing out that Romania "does not cede a palm of land without a new war," but his voices were not heard. The Great Powers did not hesitate to reward Russia for its victory, to the detriment of a smaller ally.

Despite this painful compromise, the final act of the Congress of Berlin finally consecrated the absolute independence of Romania. It was recognized as a sovereign state, with equal rights to the other European nations. It was the end of an era of suzerainty and the beginning of a new stage in its history.

Chapter VII: Legacy and consequences

The War of Independence had a profound and lasting impact on Romania.

National identity: The war cemented the feeling of national unity and created a pantheon of heroes. The battles of Plevna, Grivița, and Smârdan became symbols of Romanian courage and patriotism, consolidated in the collective consciousness.

The army: The Romanian army gained international military respect. It proved to be a force capable of fighting and winning, and its prestige grew considerably. This paved the way for even deeper modernization in the years that followed.

International status: Romania became an independent and sovereign kingdom, recognized by the great powers. This recognition allowed the country to develop its own foreign policy, to sign treaties, to have diplomatic representations, and to participate in the diplomatic games of Europe.

Territory: Dobrogea, South Dobrogea, and Snake Island, although offered as a "bargain" for Bessarabia, represented a significant territorial expansion and an opening to the Black Sea, with enormous strategic and economic importance.

Human sacrifice: The war was won at an immense price. Over 10,000 Romanian soldiers lost their lives. Many were wounded, and their stories of heroism were passed down from generation to generation. Their sacrifice was the foundation on which modern Romania was built.

The War of Independence of 1877-1878 was more than a simple military campaign. It was an act of national will, a battle for dignity and freedom, a crucial stage in the process of forming the modern Romanian state. It showed that Romania was not a simple pawn on the map of Europe, but a nation determined to decide its own destiny. The victory, although stained by diplomatic compromises, was a cornerstone for all the achievements that were to come, including the Great Union of 1918. It was a lesson in history, courage, and patriotism, a story that, even after more than a century, continues to inspire and move.