The Sundarbans: A Proud Heritage of Bengal
World largest mangrove forest Sundarban of Bangladesh heritage of folk-lore
The sundarban is a her that fills the people of Bengal with pride. Nature has gifted us with forest paradise so magnificent that its stories can be told to the entire world. Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world, situated at the confluence of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. What doesn’t this forest have? It is the home of the world-famous Royal Bengal Tiger. In addition, there are spotted deer, crocodiles, venomous snakes, turtles, and countless other species. The forest is also rich with diverse trees like Sundari, Garan, and Keora.
People live in this heritage-rich jungle with their families. They earn their livelihood by collecting honey, cutting wood, and fishing. While doing so, they face numerous dangers—fears of being taken by tigers while collecting honey or wood, fear of snake bites, or attacks by crocodiles while fishing in the rivers. Yet, people continue to live there—they must. And with them, reside their deities \[1].
There are various theories about the human settlement in the Sundarbans. Many scholars believe that people started living there between the 8th and 10th centuries. In the medieval period, human habitation diminished due to various reasons. Some believe it was due to attacks by the Portuguese and the Arakanese. Other accounts exist as well—for example, a Sufi saint is said to have arrived in the 12th century and initiated agricultural activities. Some scholars suggest that woodcutters, fishermen, and farmers used to frequent the rivers of the Sundarbans for their livelihood. Moreover, during the 17th and 18th centuries, bandits also raided this region.
While there is disagreement about exactly when permanent settlements began, most agree that they began toward the end of the 19th century. At that time, British Collector General Claude Russell divided the forest into two parts—one for forestry and the other allocated for agriculture and land leasing. From then on, people from nearby regions like Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh began settling here for livelihood and land. After their arrival, deforestation increased, especially during the time of Tillman Henckell, who was then the Magistrate of Jessore district \[2].
The Sundarbans is a perilous place for humans. The residents constantly face danger, but over time, they have also discovered ways to survive. Some of these methods are spiritual, others practical. For instance, families fear crocodiles, so the women observe rituals to appease the crocodile deity. When honey collectors, or *mouals*, go deep into the forest, they take along *bauls* (tiger charmers), believed to be experts at handling tigers through chants and rituals. Bauls must also follow strict rules—since Friday is a sacred day for Muslims, they are not allowed to enter the forest on that day; they must not eat pork or crab; they cannot be involved in usury, etc. These rules mainly apply to Muslims. The life of a baul is extremely difficult and dangerous \[2, 3].
One way to understand the rituals, customs, lifestyle, beliefs, and socio-economic conditions of Sundarbans residents is to visit them and conduct interviews. Another way is to study their folk manuscripts (*puthis*), which often narrate tales of their local deities.
The Sundarbans is home to both Hindus and Muslims. Among the Muslims, there are communities like Sheikh, Syed, and Pathan. Among Hindus, one finds barbers, fishermen, Chandals, washermen, yogis, etc.—most of whom belong to the Shudra caste. These people depend on the forest for their livelihood and must struggle against nature to survive. As a result, they rely heavily on religious beliefs and their deities to overcome adversity. Among the most revered deities are *Dakshin Rai* and *Bonbibi*. A well-written essay on the origin of Bonbibi can be found here.
Dakshin Rai is believed to be the tiger deity. Residents of the Sundarbans worship him, and various mythological tales surround his origin. These stories have been passed down orally. Some believe he is the son of Lord Shiva. Others believe that after Lord Ganesha’s head was severed, it flew south and became the origin of this deity. In the manuscript *Bonbibir Johurnama* by the late Munshi Mohammad Khater, Dakshin Rai is also described as a forest demon or evil spirit.
On the other hand, *Bonbibi* is another deity believed to protect everyone in the jungle. The most remarkable aspect is that both Hindu and Muslim communities believe in her divine power. However, the religious ceremonies honoring Bonbibi vary between the two religions.
Muslims refer to the deity as Bonbibi, while Hindus call her Bondébi and worship her as a mother goddess. In Sharad Mitra’s essay *On an accumulation droll from eastern Bengal and on a muslimani legend about the Sylvan Saint Banabibi and Tiger deity Dakshina Roy*, it is mentioned that any Muslim girl can be chosen as Bonbibi and entrusted with a red flag. It’s important to note that such belief in a common, imaginary deity across two religious groups is not trivial. Deep philosophical thinking lies behind it. In a place where survival itself is a struggle and merely staying alive is paramount, depending on a mythical figure like Bonbibi is seen as essential—with the hope that she will protect them from any danger \[4].
Even though we know much about the Sundarbans as a region, how much do we truly know about its people? Their thoughts and beliefs differ from those in other parts of Bangladesh and are quite fascinating. Their likes and dislikes may also be different. There is significant scope for research on these people who live so close to nature. These individuals, who spend their lives battling constant threats, present a stark contrast to the lives of modern, urbanized humans. Research can be conducted on this contrast and on how important that difference is.
**References:**
\[1] Karmakar, S. (2018). *Ethnic identity and forest preservation: A sociological enquiry on Sundarbans, West Bengal*, *Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Science*, Volume 6(1), page: 20-25
\[2] Jalais, A. (2010). *Forest of Tigers: People, Politics & Environment in the Sundarbans* (New Delhi, India: Routledge)
\[3] Hunter, W. W. (1973). *A Statistical Account of Bengal. Vol. I. District of the 24 Parganas and Sundarbans*
\[4] Sarkar, S. C. (2010). *The Sundarbans: Folk Deities, Monsters and Mortals* (New Delhi, India: Social Science Press and Orient Blackswan)
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Riham Rahman
Writer, History analyzer, South Asian geo-politics analyst, Bengali culture researcher
Aspiring writer and student with a deep curiosity for history, science, and South Asian geopolitics and Bengali culture.
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Independence Movements in the Caribbean: Successes and Failures of the Colonial Powers
Independence Movements in the Caribbean: Successes and Failures of the Colonial Powers Before the Second World War, a large part of the world was under colonial rule, with European powers maintaining colonies across the globe. After the war, political awareness grew in these colonized countries, and independence movements gained momentum under various types of political leadership. Nationalism surged in many regions as a result of the war, and the number of independent nation-states began to increase rapidly. At the same time, global population grew, while the size of states decreased. Former colonies often fragmented into smaller states, and new states were created. In many cases, however, the attempt to build new states failed. The Caribbean region, too, holds stories of both success and failure in state-building. Independence of Caribbean Nations Antigua and Barbuda, known for its tourism, and the Bahamas, a popular tourist destination with over 700 islands (many uninhabited but rich in beaches, coral reefs, and natural beauty), are notable Caribbean countries. Barbados, famous for cricket, beaches, and rum, has an economy that relies heavily on tourism and international trade. Barbados gained independence peacefully in 1966 under the joint leadership of the Barbados Labour Party and the Democratic Labour Party. The most well-known Caribbean country for many readers is likely Cuba—the country of Fidel Castro. Along with communism, Cuba is known for its sugar, tobacco, and coffee exports, as well as its music, creative arts, and cigars. Cuba gained independence in 1959 by overthrowing a U.S.-backed government. The Cuban independence movement had begun as early as the 19th century and finally culminated under the leadership of Fidel Castro and Che Guevara, leading to the establishment of communism in the country. Dominica and the Dominican Republic are two other Caribbean nations. Both have agriculture-based economies and export bananas, sugar, and coffee. The Dominican Republic was a Spanish colony and saw violent independence movements in the 19th and 20th centuries. It gained independence in 1821 after three centuries of colonial rule, was then taken over by Haiti, from which it broke free in 1844. Spain reoccupied it in 1861, and later it came under U.S. rule in 1916. The Third Republic was established in 1924, and the Fourth Republic in 1966. The Dominican Republic, with a population of 11 million, now has a per capita income of over $10,000. Sharing the island of Hispaniola with the Dominican Republic is Haiti, known as the world’s first Black republic founded by former slaves. Grenada, famous for its spices, also has an agriculture- and tourism-dependent economy, like most Caribbean countries. Jamaica, one of the larger Caribbean nations, is known for its mountains, rainforests, and scenic beaches—and, of course, for cricket star Chris Gayle. Outside of tourism and agriculture, Jamaica has a growing manufacturing sector and a rich cultural heritage, especially in music. The Jamaican Labour Party and the People’s National Party led Jamaica's independence movement, and the country gained independence from Britain in 1962. Other Caribbean countries include Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago. Nearly all these nations were once colonies of various European powers before World War II and have agriculture- and tourism-based economies. Trinidad and Tobago gained independence from Britain in August 1962 under the leadership of the People’s National Movement (PNM), which also ensured a peaceful transition of power. Why Were These Independence Movements Successful? After World War II, the number of independent nations rose rapidly, along with an increase in movements demanding independence. These movements were justified by two main theoretical frameworks: First, the Culturalist Theory suggests that nationalist movements arise from differences and inequalities in cultural identity. These identities may be based on language, ethnicity, or religion. Such identity-based independence movements often derive legitimacy from institutional and social inequalities, with civil society playing a key role in justifying these causes. Second, according to the Rationalist Theory, people make decisions based on the most advantageous outcome. A political force is more likely to join an independence movement if doing so promises political and economic benefits. In most states, there is a core-periphery divide. Groups in the core enjoy more political and economic advantages, while those in the periphery experience the opposite. Eventually, peripheral groups may pursue independence to assert their own political identity and cultural diversity. Third, human beings are inherently drawn to freedom. Most people do not accept colonial rule willingly. On the contrary, they repeatedly engage in political struggles to free themselves from it. Colonial rulers, however, are reluctant to relinquish control due to their economic and political interests. This often leads to conflict between colonizers and freedom-seekers. To suppress independence movements, colonizers typically maintain repressive state structures, which further incite resistance. Fourth, every nation develops its own core values and political philosophies. Although democratic governance is practiced in over 130 countries today, each country shapes its system in its own way. Differences in governance values often lead to conflict between colonizers and local populations. These conflicts may arise from language issues, demands for equitable resource distribution, or religious differences—all of which strengthen the case for independence. Fifth, the post-World War II global political landscape changed significantly. Foreign interference in domestic politics became more prevalent. Often, multiple global powers vied for influence in the same country, leading to clashes that sometimes resulted in independence. Regional political dynamics also played a role, as rival factions often saw the collapse of a colonial power or breakup of a larger state as an opportunity for political gain. Caribbean Territories That Have Not Gained Independence Despite many successes, at least 17 territories in the Caribbean remain under colonial rule. The countries that still hold territories in the Caribbean include the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France, and the United States. The UK, once a dominant colonial power in the region, still governs several territories including Anguilla, Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, Montserrat, the Cayman Islands, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. The Netherlands retains control over Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Maarten, Sint Eustatius, and Aruba. France controls Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, and Saint Martin. The United States governs Puerto Rico. Many of these territories have small local populations, and some islands serve primarily military purposes. Global powers maintain a military presence in the Caribbean to preserve their geopolitical relevance and justify their continued control using various political arguments. These areas also lack a well-developed middle class—essential for a successful independence movement. Additionally, local elites often do not support independence, and the civil society lacks a principled ideological position. These are key reasons why these regions have not yet achieved independence.
By Riham Rahman 9 months ago in History
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The Koh-i-Noor Diamond
The Koh-i-Noor, meaning “Mountain of Light” in Persian, is one of the most famous and controversial diamonds in the world. More than just a gemstone, it is a symbol of power, conquest, imperial ambition, and historical dispute. For centuries, the Koh-i-Noor passed from one ruler to another, almost always through war, betrayal, or political domination. Its story is deeply intertwined with the history of South Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, and the British Empire. Origins in Ancient India The exact origins of the Koh-i-Noor are surrounded by legend and uncertainty. Most historians agree that the diamond was discovered in India, likely in the Golconda region (modern-day Telangana), which was once the world’s richest source of diamonds. Golconda diamonds were renowned for their exceptional clarity and brilliance, and many legendary gems came from this area. Ancient Indian texts and folklore suggest that the Koh-i-Noor may have been known thousands of years ago. Some legends associate it with the Syamantaka Mani, a mythical jewel mentioned in Hindu scriptures. While this link cannot be proven, it reflects how deeply the diamond is embedded in Indian cultural imagination. What is more certain is that for centuries, India was the only known source of diamonds in the world, making gems like the Koh-i-Noor extraordinarily rare and valuable. The Delhi Sultanate and Early Rulers By the medieval period, the Koh-i-Noor had become part of royal treasuries in northern India. It is believed to have been owned by rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, a series of Muslim dynasties that ruled large parts of India from the 13th to the 16th centuries. During this time, the diamond was not merely an ornament. It symbolized divine favor, royal authority, and military dominance. Possessing such a gem enhanced a ruler’s prestige and legitimacy. However, the diamond’s history already showed a pattern: it rarely stayed with one dynasty for long. The Mughal Empire and the Peacock Throne The Koh-i-Noor reached new heights of fame under the Mughal Empire, one of the greatest empires in South Asian history. In 1526, Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty, defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat. The diamond came into Mughal possession shortly after. Babur himself mentioned a famous diamond in his memoirs, the Baburnama, describing its immense value. Later Mughal emperors treasured the Koh-i-Noor, but it was under Shah Jahan—the builder of the Taj Mahal—that the diamond achieved legendary status. Shah Jahan placed the Koh-i-Noor in the magnificent Peacock Throne, a jewel-encrusted seat symbolizing Mughal wealth and glory. At this point, the diamond was not just a treasure; it was the heart of imperial power. Nadir Shah and the Name “Koh-i-Noor” In 1739, disaster struck the Mughal Empire. Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia (modern Iran), invaded India and sacked Delhi. The Mughal capital was looted, and unimaginable wealth was carried away. According to legend, when Nadir Shah first saw the diamond, he exclaimed “Koh-i-Noor!”—Mountain of Light. From that moment, the diamond became known by this name. Nadir Shah took the Koh-i-Noor back to Persia, but his reign was short-lived. He was assassinated in 1747, and once again, the diamond changed hands amid chaos. Afghanistan and the Durrani Empire After Nadir Shah’s death, the Koh-i-Noor came into the possession of Ahmad Shah Durrani, the founder of the Durrani Empire in Afghanistan. For a time, the diamond remained in Afghan royal custody. However, internal conflicts weakened Afghan rulers. One of Ahmad Shah’s descendants, Shah Shuja Durrani, was eventually overthrown and imprisoned. Desperate to regain his throne, Shah Shuja sought help from the Sikh Empire in India—and brought the Koh-i-Noor with him as a bargaining tool. Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Empire In the early 19th century, the Koh-i-Noor entered the treasury of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the powerful founder of the Sikh Empire. Shah Shuja gave the diamond to Ranjit Singh in exchange for military assistance. Ranjit Singh valued the Koh-i-Noor deeply, but unlike many rulers before him, he reportedly wished for the diamond to be donated to a Hindu temple after his death. However, this wish was never fulfilled. After Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, the Sikh Empire rapidly declined due to internal struggles and British interference. This set the stage for the final and most controversial chapter of the Koh-i-Noor’s journey. British Conquest and Transfer to Britain Following the Anglo-Sikh Wars, the British East India Company annexed Punjab in 1849. As part of the Treaty of Lahore, the Koh-i-Noor was handed over to the British. The diamond was presented to Queen Victoria and transported to Britain. This transfer remains one of the most disputed moments in the diamond’s history, as it occurred under colonial domination, not free consent. In 1851, the Koh-i-Noor was displayed at the Great Exhibition in London. However, many viewers found it disappointing, as its original cut did not reflect light well by European standards. Recutting and the British Crown Jewels To enhance its brilliance, Prince Albert ordered the diamond to be re-cut in 1852. While this made the Koh-i-Noor smaller, it significantly increased its sparkle. The diamond was later set into various pieces of British royal jewelry. Today, it is mounted in the crown of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, part of the British Crown Jewels, and kept in the Tower of London. Traditionally, the Koh-i-Noor is worn only by female members of the royal family, due to a long-standing belief that the diamond brings misfortune to men who possess it. Modern Controversies and Claims In the modern era, the Koh-i-Noor has become a symbol of colonial injustice. India, Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan have all, at different times, claimed rightful ownership of the diamond. India argues that the Koh-i-Noor was taken during British colonial rule and should be returned. Pakistan claims it as part of the Sikh Empire’s legacy, which was based in Lahore. Afghanistan cites its period under Durrani rulers, while Iran references Nadir Shah. Britain, however, maintains that the diamond was acquired legally under the Treaty of Lahore. Conclusion: A Symbol Beyond a Gem The Koh-i-Noor is far more than a diamond. It represents centuries of empire-building, conquest, ambition, and loss. Its journey mirrors the violent and complex history of South Asia and imperial expansion. Whether it will ever be returned remains uncertain. But one thing is clear: the Koh-i-Noor is not just a Mountain of Light—it is a mountain of history, carrying within it the stories of rulers, empires, and nations.
By The best writer 2 days ago in History
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Great history
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