The Mongol Invasions of the West (1240-1288)

The Mongols established the largest contiguous land Empire in the 13th century. Genghis Khan brought together seven Mongol tribes and deployed armies in various directions. Mongol forces advanced into Western Asia and Europe, encountering Latin Christendom and the Muslim World. Mongol coordination and raids in Poland were carried out by Baidar and Orda, who worked alongside Subotai and Batu for Mongol operations. Baidar and Orda divided their forces into smaller raiding parties to sow chaos and led the Vanguard to Krakov. The Mongols emerged victorious over the Polish and their allies at the Battle of Legnica. The intense fighting resulted in heavy losses for the Christian Knights, and the Mongols utilized their swift cavalry to target the disorganized Polish infantry, leading to a devastating defeat. The Mongols claimed trophies from the battle, such as cutting off the ears of the fallen and sending them to their leaders. The Mongols displayed no mercy, capturing and executing Duke Henry, and showcasing his head on a lance as a frightening demonstration of their power, which struck fear into the citizens of Legnica. The Polish forces suffered significant losses, including the Duke's headless body, which was only identifiable by the extra toe on his left foot. The Mongol invasion of Hungary and Poland resulted in the devastation and depopulation of Silesian and Moravian towns. Despite Mongol losses in Hungary and Poland, the enduring legend of the Battle of Legnica highlights the remarkable coordination and securing of the Southern flank by Mongol forces.

The Mongol armies' coordination resulted in victories in Poland and Hungary. Their tactics of feigned retreat and strategic positioning were crucial to their success, as was the deployment of advanced siege equipment. Subutai's tactical maneuver with 30,000 horsemen attacking the Hungarians from behind led to the defeat of the Hungarian camp. Disunity among Hungarian Barons towards King Bella made them vulnerable to the Mongol invaders. Bravery was shown by Duke Coleman, Knights Templar, and Archbishop Ugrin in the face of the Mongol attack. The Mongols devastated Hungary and Croatia, pursuing fugitive King Bella IV. They crossed the Frozen Danube River, captured Buddha, invaded Croatia, and took Zagreb. After the decisive Battle of Mahi, the Mongols departed from Hungary, Croatia, and Poland. Hulagu's campaign in the Levant against the Mamluks and his conquests in Western Asia, including the sacking of Baghdad in 1258, was significant. The battle between Hulagu's forces and the Mamluks at the Valley of Ein Jalud in 1260 resulted in the defeat of the Mongols by the Mamluks, led by Bibars and Sultan Katus. The devastating impact of the second Mongol invasion on Hungary in 1241 led to reforms implemented by King Bella IV, including organizing heavily armored knights and building stone castles.

The reforms instituted by King Bela IV significantly bolstered Hungary's defenses. He incentivized new settlers to relocate to Hungary by offering knighthood to those who could provide their military equipment. Additionally, he negotiated an agreement with the Venetians to supply crossbowmen, which facilitated the construction of 100 new fortifications. The Hungarian Knights inflicted substantial losses on the Mongol forces, leveraging their well-fortified positions to launch effective counterattacks. Under the leadership of King Ladislaus IV, the Royal Hungarian Army achieved a decisive victory against the weakened Mongol contingent in the hills of Western Transylvania. This triumph marked the defeat of the Mongols during their second invasion of Hungary in 1285. The reforms implemented in Hungary played a crucial role in securing this victory, as the robust castles hindered the Mongols' advance. The adoption of Western-style armor and heavy cavalry provided the Hungarians with a significant advantage, effectively deterring future large-scale invasions. Meanwhile, the Mongol invasion strategy and initial maneuvers in Poland were led by Talibuga Khan, who commanded a force of 20,000, including Ruthenian troops, towards San Domirsh and northern Poland. Concurrently, No Guy Khan directed 10,000 Mongol and Turk cavalry toward Krakow. This two-pronged assault was executed with remarkable speed to thwart any effective Polish defense. After pillaging and capturing their designated targets, the two armies were to converge north of Krakow to loot several cities before retreating to the territory of the Golden Horde.

The Mongol invasion of Poland and the Polish defense were significant historical events. The Mongols attempted to lay siege to San Domirsh but were ultimately repelled by the city's defenses and garrison. Under the leadership of Duke Lezak II, the Polish force emerged victorious in the Battle of Lago against the Mongols. Despite the failure of the third Mongol invasion of Poland, it still inflicted damage, although the Mongols failed to take major cities or castles and suffered losses against Polish and Hungarian forces. The effective counterblow delivered by the Polish and Hungarian forces ultimately convinced the Mongols to retreat. The potential outcome of the Mongol invasions in Europe is a topic of contemplation, as historians explore the various factors that could have influenced a Mongol conquest or a successful European defense. The historical events and impact of the Mongol invasions, led by figures like Batu and Subatai, are also subjects of interest. There are concerns about the credibility and feasibility of Mongol messengers reaching Batu in time, with Rashid being considered a more credible chronicler source. It is suggested that the Mongol invasions were multi-purpose, with conquest as a potential goal, and that they were probing exercises with the potential to conquer if opportunities presented themselves. Historian Peter Jackson suggests that the Mongols envisaged further conquests. The Mongol invasion also had the effect of uniting Christian rulers, as the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor hindered the Crusade, and King Louis IX and Fernando III were likely to rally against the Mongol invasion. It is believed that Louis and Fernando could have led a powerful Crusader Army against the Mongol invasion and that the home advantage of their Crusader Force would have been a serious hindrance to the Mongols.

The well-fed and well-supplied Western Army would have had an advantage over the hungry and poorly supplied Mongol Army, despite the possibility of a battle. The Mongol demands and alliances with European kingdoms included King Louis being viewed as a petty Chieftain, demanding the surrender of France and annual tribute. Additionally, Prince Edward's minor campaign and alliance with the Mongol ruler of Persia were discussed. There was also a discussion of joint efforts between Mongols and Latin Christians for future Crusades. Although strategies for future Crusades involving joint efforts were entertained, no substantial military enterprise resulted from the planning.