Sultan Abdul Hamid II

Sultan Abdul Hamid II, born on September 21, 1842, in Istanbul, was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the last to wield effective autocratic power. His reign, from 1876 to 1909, was marked by dramatic change, internal strife, foreign pressure, and a fierce struggle to preserve a crumbling empire. A complex figure, he is remembered both as a defender of Islam and the caliphate, and as an authoritarian ruler who ruled with a heavy hand in turbulent times.

Early Life and Rise to Power

Abdul Hamid was the son of Sultan Abdulmejid I and Tirimüjgan Kadınefendi, a Circassian consort. Raised in a multicultural, multilingual environment, he received a thorough education that included Islamic studies, European languages, and Western political philosophy. Unlike some of his predecessors, Abdul Hamid was deeply aware of the empire’s vulnerabilities and the growing threats from both within and outside its borders.

He ascended to the throne in 1876 under extraordinary circumstances. His uncle, Sultan Abdulaziz, had been deposed and died under mysterious circumstances, while his brother Murad V was deemed mentally unfit to rule after just three months. Abdul Hamid took the throne during a time of intense political reform and unrest, notably with the First Constitutional Era just beginning.

The Constitution and Its Suspension

Initially, Abdul Hamid II was seen as a constitutional monarch. In December 1876, under pressure from reformist statesmen like Midhat Pasha, he promulgated the first Ottoman Constitution and convened a representative parliament. This brief experiment with constitutionalism, however, was short-lived.

Facing the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), Abdul Hamid suspended the constitution in 1878, dissolved parliament, and assumed full autocratic control. The empire’s defeat in the war and the harsh terms of the Treaty of Berlin left the Ottoman territories severely diminished. Abdul Hamid viewed centralized authority as the only way to prevent further disintegration, and thus began his era of absolutism.

Autocracy and Pan-Islamism

Abdul Hamid’s rule is most noted for his use of Islamic unity—Pan-Islamism—as a political strategy. As the Ottoman Sultan, he also claimed the title of Caliph, the spiritual leader of Sunni Islam. In a period when nationalism was tearing apart multiethnic empires, Abdul Hamid sought to counter this by emphasizing Islamic solidarity. He promoted the construction of railroads, including the Hejaz Railway to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, as symbols of Islamic unity and Ottoman benevolence.

However, his autocratic style of governance alienated many. He established a vast and oppressive intelligence network, censored the press, and imprisoned dissidents. His paranoia grew with age, particularly as revolutionary movements, such as the Young Turks, gained strength. Despite this, Abdul Hamid presided over a time of relative internal stability and continued modernization in education, infrastructure, and administration.

Reforms and Modernization

Though remembered largely for his authoritarianism, Abdul Hamid II also oversaw significant reforms. He expanded the telegraph and railway systems, modernized the army, and supported educational institutions, particularly technical and vocational schools. His reforms were driven by a desire to strengthen the empire internally, but they often clashed with his suspicion of Western influences.

One of the notable contradictions of his reign was his support for modernization under an autocratic umbrella. He viewed Western liberalism and constitutionalism as threats to the empire’s unity, yet he embraced Western technology and administrative methods when they served the state.

Decline and Deposition

By the early 20th century, dissatisfaction with Abdul Hamid’s rule had grown significantly. The Young Turk movement, composed of reformist military officers and intellectuals, forced the Sultan to reinstate the 1876 Constitution in 1908, marking the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era. Though he nominally remained on the throne, his powers were significantly curtailed.

In April 1909, following the 31 March Incident—a failed countercoup by conservative elements seeking to restore his autocratic rule—Abdul Hamid II was deposed by the Young Turks and replaced by his brother Mehmed V. He spent the remaining years of his life under house arrest at the Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul until his death in 1918.

Legacy

The legacy of Sultan Abdul Hamid II remains controversial. To some, he is a reactionary autocrat who stifled liberty and delayed needed reforms. To others, especially in the modern Islamic world, he is revered as a hero who defended the caliphate, resisted Western imperialism, and sought to preserve the unity of the Muslim world.

His reign encapsulates the contradictions of a decaying empire: tradition clashing with modernity, religion with secularism, autocracy with reform. He was a ruler who understood the gravity of his empire’s condition but chose control over consensus. In trying to save the Ottoman Empire, he tightened his grip—only to see the forces of change break through after his fall.

Today, Abdul Hamid II continues to inspire debate. His Pan-Islamic vision resonates with some in the Islamic world, while his authoritarian methods remain a cautionary tale of how fear can hinder progress. As the last truly powerful Ottoman sultan and the final caliph to wield temporal power, his life marks the end of an era—and the beginning of the modern Middle East.