Legacy of the Druids

Caesar's description of the religious class of Gaul. Caesar documented his military campaigns in Gaul to gain public support. The druids were a prominent group in Gaelic society, overseeing religious and civil matters, preaching the immortality of the soul, and performing sacrifices.

Later writings confirm Druids as a religious class in Western Europe. The location of Hyperborea varies greatly among different ancient authors. This idea is supported by the latitude measurements recorded by later astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea, who references sun measurements taken by Pepheus. The alleged location of Hyperborea differs significantly among various ancient authors, with subsequent authors placing it further and further north. Druids were Gaelic holy men known in southern Gaul. Greek colonies in southern Gaul were aware of Druids from the 2nd century BC. The Druids were connected with animal sacrifices and held in high regard like philosophers. The Roman victory in Transalpine Gaul occurred when the Roman army defeated the combined Gaelic force led by the Arverni and the Elebrogers in 121 BC, securing trade routes. Posidonius, a well-known philosopher, traveled through the region and documented its culture and geography. Caesar's narrative was influenced by Posidonius. Scholars categorize these authors as part of the Poseidonian school. They portray the Druids as religious elites and judges, as well as overseers of human sacrifice. Caesar's account highlights darker aspects of Gallic society, including descriptions of human sacrifices carried out by the Druids. The list of the Gallic pantheon and their rituals, such as dedicating spoils to Mars, is also mentioned. Caesar's depiction of Gallic society may contain inaccuracies. Caesar's assertion about the powers of the Druids contradicts a contemporary Roman account by Cicero, who claimed to have witnessed Druid practices in Rome. While Cicero's narrative conflicts with some aspects of Caesar's description, it also aligns with other details such as the presence of human sacrifice among the Gauls.

The transition from a republic to an empire provides the context for the emergence of Druidic accounts. Concerns were raised by Caesar's contemporaries regarding his actions and narratives. The alliance and power struggle following Caesar's assassination paved the way for the rise of the Roman Empire. Druidic teachings were linked to Pythagoras. Various sources present conflicting information about the roles and practices of the Druids. While Strabo and Caesar offer differing accounts of the Druids' responsibilities, they both agree on certain aspects, such as the importance of Druids during times of warfare. Additionally, there are discrepancies in the descriptions of Druidic rituals and beliefs, with some authors introducing new methods of execution and divination. The depiction of Druids by these authors raises questions about the accuracy of their accounts and suggests a shift in religious practices in Gaul under Roman influence. The mention of vates hints at a possible blending of Roman and Gaulic beliefs. The ancient Druids were known for their barbaric rites, belief in reincarnation, and the sacred groves where their rituals took place. The ritual of harvesting mistletoe and salago, as described by the authors, sheds light on the practices of the Druids. Finally, the Romans' repressive measures against the Druids indicate a significant change in the religious landscape of Gaul. Pliny and Lucan condemned the practices of the Druids in Gaul. Emperor Tiberius, in turn, issued a decree banning Druids, diviners, and physicians. Historical works present uncertainties regarding the claims made about the Druids. Pliny and Suetonius offer conflicting information about the status of the Druids. Pliny's credibility has been called into question due to his fantastical accounts of remote regions and false societal claims.

During the Roman invasion of Wales, Druids played an active role in defending Anglesey through incantations and imprecations. The British resistance, led by Queen Boudicca, was eventually crushed by Roman forces. Tacitus's account of Druidic involvement in Agricola's conquest raises doubts about its accuracy. While Tacitus likely drew upon first-hand experiences for his description, there are reasons to approach his claims with caution, especially since the written version appeared several decades after the events. Discrepancies can be found in Tacitus's various accounts, with some lacking references to Druids and differing descriptions of Anglesey's significance. Greek and Roman authors mentioned female religious officials, including accounts of black-clad women in Britain who acted as cheerleaders for the British forces. There is also a curious example of Gaelic priestesses dedicated to the Greek god Dionysus, residing in a temple where men were not allowed and seeking sexual partners on the mainland. The perception of Druids evolved from being seen as savages to acceptable ancestors over time. Roman authors from the first and second centuries depicted Druids as savages and practitioners of human sacrifice. However, the perception gradually changed, with Druids being romanticized as acceptable ancestors. Archaeologists have found evidence supporting Roman accounts of Druidic sacrifice in Gaul and Britain. On the other hand, Alexandrian authors offer a different perspective on the Druids, describing them as wise purveyors of knowledge and influential advisers to kings. 1. Greek philosophy was influenced by various ancient civilizations, including those that the Greeks later labeled as barbarians.

Roman historian Amianes Marcelinus, in his 4th-century work, referenced Druids, aligning more with Greek perspectives than Roman ones. The religious customs of the druids may have evolved over centuries in Anatolia. While there are various accounts of the druids, it is difficult to verify their accuracy as there are no direct accounts by the people of Gaul or Britain. The archaeological record of the countries where the druids operated is available for examination, although there are some misconceptions about the sites at which they supposedly worshipped. The megalithic building predates accounts of the druids by millennia, with most structures dating back to Neolithic times. Historical druidic activity in Gaul and Britain is evident from large-scale sanctuaries and enclosures found in France and Britain from the 4th century BC onwards. Similar enclosed ritual centers are also found in neighboring Switzerland, eastern France, and Bavaria. Iron Age ceremonial sites had diverse purposes and structures. In Britain, there were sanctuaries with circular buildings towards the end of the Iron Age. In other areas, sites like Rock Battus in southern France showcased adorned limestone pillars and head exhibits. Ancient Europe saw the veneration of numerous local and international deities. Many gods and goddesses were revered in Britain and Gaul, with some assimilated by Romans after conquests. Notable deities in Northern Europe included the Horned God Sir Nunos and the Thunder God Tyrannus. Deities in Gaul and Britain were often linked to Roman gods, although recent studies challenge the preservation of the original deities. Isis and Teutates were associated with Mercury and Mars, respectively. Solis was later connected with Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom and healing. Celtic deities like Teutates, Isis, and Taranis were worshipped in ancient northern Europe. Inscriptions of Teutates have been discovered on Romano-British finger rings in Britain and Gaul.

In Gaul, Isis is depicted as a male figure pruning a tree, while Taranis is portrayed as the god of thunder, bearing similarities to the Roman god Jupiter. Wooden figurines found in groves near Greek settlements were used for the worship of gods. Dating back to the pre-Roman era, wooden figurines have been unearthed in various locations such as the British Isles, Scotland, Devon, East Yorkshire, and Ireland. These figurines, dating from the 6th to 4th centuries BC, are believed to represent divine images. Bronze spoons and helmets have been discovered in southern England and Wales. A notable helmet was excavated in 1988 at a male burial site in Kent, dating back to the third and second centuries BC. Bronze spoons or scoops have been found in different parts of Britain and Ireland, with their exact age still uncertain. The practices of the druids remain shrouded in uncertainty. Speculation surrounds druidic rituals involving shallow bowls and small holes in spoons, with the possibility of different liquids or substances being used. The creation of the five-year calendar is attributed to the druids, although its exact origins remain subject to interpretation. The calendar's resemblance to the five-year cycle of sacrifices among the Gauls suggests a connection to the druids.

Historians and archaeologists debate whether the calendar was crafted by the druids themselves or by Romanized officials familiar with local customs. Roman authors linked ritual human sacrifice to the peoples of Gaul and Britain. Potential evidence of such practices has been discovered in ritual centers in Gaul, including Rivermont, Sir Ankara, and Rocherpertus, where mass displays of body parts and ossuaries made of human bones were found. Scholars are uncertain whether the bodies found at these sites resulted from battles or ritual sacrifices, but signs of ritual decapitation and destruction of human remains have been observed at locations like Montmartin, Gournay, and Mormont. Lindoman is believed to have been a victim of ritual sacrifice, with a pathologist's analysis indicating death from a free fall with three fatal wounds and a theatrical element. The stomach contents, which include a barley cake with mistletoe pollen and a fox fur band worn around the upper arm, further fuel the debate over Lindo Man's cause of death. Robert Connolly suggests that the wounds may have been inflicted postmortem, and the presence of mistletoe pollen in the stomach may not have been intentional. The existence of druids as commonly believed is also questioned, as inscriptions referring to religious officials have been found, presenting various titles but none resembling that of a druid. The elites in Iron Age societies probably served as both nobility and priests, with the worship of different gods adding complexity to the situation.

Druidic rituals were merged into a unified religious group to make it easier for Roman observers to understand. Accounts of human sacrifices in certain regions of Gaul and Britain were incorporated into the general perception of the Druids and used to validate conquests. Although the actual existence and characteristics of the Druids are uncertain, the presence of similar terms for 'seer' or 'wise one' in other Indo-European languages suggests their influence.