THE HISTORY OF ANIMALS

1.

OF the parts of animals a few are easy: to wit, all such as divide into parts uniform with themselves, as flesh into flesh; others are composite, which includes divide into parts no longer uniform with themselves, as, for instance, the hand does no longer divide into arms nor the face into faces.

And of together with these, some are known as not components simply, but limbs or participants. Such are the ones parts that, at the same time as whole in themselves, have within themselves other numerous components: as as an instance, the head, foot, hand, the arm as a whole, the chest; for these are all in themselves complete elements, and there are different various components belonging to them.

All the ones elements that don't subdivide into components uniform with themselves are composed of parts that accomplish that subdivide, for example, hand consists of flesh, sinews, and bones. Of animals, a few resemble one another in all their elements, whilst others have elements wherein they vary. Now and again the parts are equal in shape or species, as, as an example, one guy's nostril or eye resembles every other man's nostril or eye, flesh flesh, and bone bone; and in like manner with a horse, and with all other animals which we reckon to be of 1 and the same species: for as the complete is to the entire, so each to each are the parts severally. In other instances the parts are same, shop simplest for a distinction in the way of excess or disorder, as is the case in such animals as are of one and the same genus. By 'genus' I suggest, as an instance, hen or Fish, for every of those is issue to difference in admire of its genus, and there are numerous species of fishes and of birds.

Within the limits of genera, maximum of the parts probably exhibit variations via contrast of the assets or twist of fate, along with coloration and shape, to which they are issue: in that a few are greater and a few in a less degree the difficulty of the same property or accident; and additionally in the way of multitude or fewness, magnitude or parvitude, in quick within the manner of excess or defect. Accordingly in a few the texture of the flesh is tender, in others firm; some have an extended

Invoice, others a brief one; a few have abundance of feathers, others have handiest a small quantity. It occurs in addition that a few have elements that others have not: for instance, some have spurs and others not, a few have crests and others not; however as a standard rule, maximum parts and people that go to make up the bulk of the body are either identical with each other, or fluctuate from each other in the manner of assessment and of extra and illness. For 'the greater' and 'the much less' can be represented as 'extra' or 'defect'.

All over again, we may additionally need to do with animals whose parts are neither same in form nor but identical shop for variations within the way of extra or illness: however they're the same only inside the way of analogy, as, as an instance, bone is best analogous to fish-bone, nail to hoof, hand to claw, and scale to feather; for what the feather is in a chicken, the dimensions is in a fish.

The elements, then, which animals severally own are diverse from, or equal with, one another within the style above defined. And they are so moreover inside the manner of neighborhood disposition: for lots animals have identical organs that differ in function; for example, some have teats in the breast, others near the thighs.

Of the substances which are composed of parts uniform (or homogeneous) with themselves, some are smooth and wet, others are dry and solid. The soft and wet are such both without a doubt or as long as they may be of their herbal situations, as, for instance, blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow, sperm, gall, milk in together with have it flesh and the like; and additionally, in a different way, the superfluities, as phlegm and the excretions of the belly and the bladder. The dry and strong are including sinew, skin, vein, hair, bone, gristle, nail, horn (a term which as carried out to the part entails an ambiguity, for the reason that whole additionally by way of distinctive feature of its shape is distinct horn), and such elements as gift an analogy to those.

Animals range from one another of their modes of subsistence, of their moves, of their conduct, and in their parts. Regarding those differences we shall first talk in huge and preferred phrases, and sooner or later we will treat of the same with near connection with every particular genus.

Variations are manifested in modes of subsistence, in behavior, in moves achieved. For instance, a few animals stay in water and others on land. And

Of these that stay in water a few achieve this in one way, and a few in another: that

Is to say, some live and feed within the water, absorb and emit water, and can't stay if deprived of water, as is the case with the exceptional majority of fishes; others get their meals and spend their days inside the water, however do now not absorb water but air, nor do they bring forth within the water. Many of these creatures are provided with toes, as the otter, the beaver, and the crocodile; a few are supplied with wings, because the diver and the grebe; a few are destitute of feet, as the water-snake. Some creatures get their residing within the water and cannot exist outdoor it: however for all that don't absorb either air or water, as, as an instance, the sea-nettle and the oyster. And of creatures that stay in the water some live in the sea, some in rivers, some in lakes, and a few in marshes, because the frog and the newt.

Of animals that stay on dry land some soak up air and emit it, which phenomena are termed 'inhalation' and 'exhalation'; as, as an instance, man and all such land animals as are supplied with lungs. Others, again, do no longer inhale air, but stay and locate their sustenance on dry land; as, as an instance, the wasp, the bee, and all other insects. And through 'insects' I mean such creatures as have nicks or notches on their bodies, both on their bellies or on both backs and bellies.

And of land animals many, as has been stated, derive their subsistence from the water; however of creatures that live in and inhale water no longer a single one derives its subsistence from dry land.

Some animals in the beginning live in water, and with the aid of and via exchange their shape and stay out of water, as is the case with river worms, for out of those the gadfly develops.

Furthermore, a few animals are desk bound, and some are erratic. Stationary animals are observed in water, but no such creature is found on dry land. In the water are many creatures that live in near adhesion to an external item, as is the case with numerous styles of oyster. And, through the way, the sponge seems to be endowed with a certain sensibility: as a proof of which it's miles alleged that the difficulty in detaching it from its moorings is expanded if the movement to detach it's not covertly applied.

Other creatures adhere at one time to an object and detach themselves from it at other instances, as is the case with a species of the so-referred to as sea- nettle; for a number of those creatures are looking for their meals within the night time-time loose and unattached.

Many creatures are unattached however immobile, as is the case with oysters and the so-referred to as holothuria. A few can swim, as, as an example, fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans, along with the crawfish. But some of these final circulate by on foot, as the crab, for it's far the nature of the creature, though it lives in water, to transport via taking walks.

Of land animals some are furnished with wings, such as birds and bees, and these are so furnished in distinct approaches one from any other; others are supplied with toes. Of the animals that are supplied with feet a few stroll, some creep, and some wriggle. However no creature is able only to move by means of flying, as the fish is in a position most effective to swim, for the animals with leathern wings can stroll; the bat has feet and the seal has imperfect toes.

Some birds have ft of little energy, and are therefore known as Apodes. This little fowl is robust at the wing; and, most likely, birds that resemble it are weak-footed and sturdy winged, including the swallow and the drepanis or (?) Alpine rapid; for these kind of birds resemble one another in their habits and in their plumage, and might effortlessly be unsuitable one for some other. (The apus is to be seen in any respect seasons, however the drepanis most effective after wet weather in summer time; for this is the time when it's miles visible and captured, though, as a trendy rule, it's miles a unprecedented fowl.)

Once more, some animals circulate by means of strolling on the floor in addition to by way of swimming in water.

Furthermore, the subsequent variations are show up in their modes of dwelling and in their actions. Some are gregarious, some are solitary, whether they be furnished with ft or wings or be outfitted for a life in the water; and a few partake of both characters, the solitary and the gregarious. And of the gregarious, some are disposed to mix for social purposes, others to stay each for its own self.

Gregarious creatures are, among birds, which includes the pigeon, the crane, and the swan; and, by way of the way, no chook provided with crooked talons is

Gregarious. Of creatures that live in water many sorts of fishes are

Gregarious, consisting of the so-known as migrants, the tunny, the pelamys, and the bonito.

Man, by means of the way, presents a combination of the 2 characters, the gregarious and the solitary.

Social creatures are inclusive of have some one not unusual item in view; and this assets isn't common to all creatures which can be gregarious. Such social creatures are guy, the bee, the wasp, the ant, and the crane.

Again, of those social creatures a few post to a ruler, others are issue to no governance: as, for example, the crane and the numerous styles of bee put up to a ruler, while ants and numerous other creatures are each one his own master.

And once more, each of gregarious and of solitary animals, some are attached to a fixed home and others are erratic or nomad.

Additionally, some are carnivorous, a few graminivorous, a few omnivorous: whilst a few feed on a peculiar food plan, as as an example the bees and the spiders, for the bee lives on honey and positive other candies, and the spider lives via catching flies; and some creatures stay on fish. Once more, a few creatures trap their meals, others treasure it up; while others do not so.

Some creatures offer themselves with a living, others cross without one: of the former kind are the mole, the mouse, the ant, the bee; of the latter type are many insects and quadrupeds. Similarly, in admire to locality of dwelling vicinity, some creatures reside below floor, because the lizard and the snake; others stay on the surface of the floor, as the pony and the canine. Make to themselves holes, others do no longer

A few are nocturnal, because the owl and the bat; others stay inside the daylight hours.

Furthermore, some creatures are tame and a few are wild: some are always tame, as guy and the mule; others are always savage, as the leopard and the wolf; and a few creatures may be swiftly tamed, because the elephant.

Once more, we may regard animals in some other light. For, every time a race of animals is discovered domesticated, the equal is continually to be found in a wild circumstance; as we discover to be the case with horses, kine, swine, (guys), sheep, goats, and puppies.

In addition, a few animals emit sound even as others are mute, and some are endowed with voice: of those latter a few have articulate speech, at the same time as others are inarticulate; some are given to persistent chirping and twittering a few are at risk of silence; some are musical, and a few unmusical; but all animals without exception workout their electricity of singing or chattering mainly in connexion with the intercourse of the sexes.

Once more, a few creatures stay in the fields, because the cushat; some at the mountains, as the hoopoe; a few common the abodes of fellows, as the pigeon.

Some, once more, are in particular salacious, because the partridge, the barn-door cock and their congeners; others are inclined to chastity, as the complete tribe of crows, for birds of this kind indulge however hardly ever in sexual intercourse.

Of marine animals, once more, some live in the open seas, a few close to the shore, a few on rocks.

Moreover, a few are combative beneath offence; others are provident for defence. Of the previous kind are consisting of act as aggressors upon others or retaliate whilst subjected to sick usage, and of the latter kind are which includes simply have a few way of guarding themselves towards assault.

Animals also differ from one another in regard to man or woman within the following respects. Some are right-tempered, slow, and little susceptible to ferocity, as the ox; others are quick tempered, ferocious and unteachable, as the wild boar; a few are smart and timid, as the stag and the hare; others are imply and treacherous, because the snake; others are noble and brave and excessive-bred, as the lion; others are thorough-bred and wild and treacherous, because the wolf: for, by the manner, an animal is highbred if it come from a noble inventory, and an animal is thorough-bred if it does not deflect from its racial characteristics.

Similarly, a few are crafty and mischievous, as the fox; some are spirited and affectionate and fawning, because the dog; others are clean-tempered and without difficulty domesticated, as the elephant; others are cautious and watchful, because the goose; others are jealous and self-conceited, as the peacock. However of all animals man on my own is able to deliberation.

Many animals have reminiscence, and are able to instruction; however no other creature besides man can consider the past at will.

In regards to the several genera of animals, details as to their habits of life and modes of life could be mentioned extra fully by and by using.

2.

Not unusual to all animals are the organs whereby they take food and the organs in which into they take it; and those are either same with one another, or are numerous within the methods above detailed: to wit, either equal in form, or various in appreciate of excess or disorder, or comparable to each other analogically, or differing in role.

Furthermore, the notable majority of animals produce other organs except those in common, wherein they discharge the residuum in their food: I say, the splendid majority, for this assertion does no longer practice to all. And, through the manner, the organ wherein meals is taken in is called the mouth, and the organ whereinto it's far taken, the stomach; the remainder of the alimentary gadget has a notable type of names.

Now the residuum of food is twofold in type, moist and dry, and such creatures as have organs receptive of moist residuum are forever observed with organs receptive of dry residuum; however such as have organs receptive of dry residuum need now not own organs receptive of wet residuum. In other phrases, an animal has a bowel or gut if it have a bladder; however an animal may have a bowel and be without a bladder. And, through the manner, I may right here observation that the organ receptive of moist residuum is called 'bladder', and the organ receptive of dry residuum 'gut or 'bowel'.

3.

Of animals otherwise, a superb many have, besides the organs above- cited, an organ for excretion of the sperm: and of animals able to technology one secretes into every other, and the other into itself. The latter is termed 'lady', and the previous 'male'; but a few animals have neither male nor girl. Therefore, the organs linked with this characteristic differ in shape, for some animals have a womb and others an organ analogous thereto. The above-cited organs, then, are the maximum fundamental elements of animals; and with some of them all animals with out exception, and with others animals for the maximum part, must needs be provided.

One feel, and one alone, is commonplace to all animals-the experience of touch. Therefore, there may be no unique call for the organ in which it has its seat; for in a few companies of animals the organ is equal, in others it's miles only analogous.

4.

Each animal is provided with moisture, and, if the animal be deprived of the same via herbal causes or artificial manner, death ensues: similarly, every animal has every other part in which the moisture is contained. These parts are blood and vein, and in other animals there is something to correspond; however in those latter the components are imperfect, being merely fibre and serum or lymph.

Contact has its seat in a part uniform and homogeneous, as within the flesh or some thing of the type, and generally, with animals supplied with blood, inside the elements charged with blood. In different animals it has its seat in elements analogous to the parts charged with blood; but in all instances it's miles seated in elements that in their texture are homogeneous.

The lively colleges, at the opposite, are seated in the elements which might be heterogeneous: as, for instance, the enterprise of making ready the meals is seated inside the mouth, and the office of locomotion in the toes, the wings, or in organs to correspond.

Once more, some animals are furnished with blood, as man, the pony, and all such animals as are, when complete-grown, either destitute of toes, or -footed, or four-footed; different animals are bloodless, which includes the bee and the wasp, and, of marine animals, the cuttle-fish, the crawfish, and all such animals as have extra than four toes.

Five.

Again, some animals are viviparous, others oviparous, others vermiparous or 'grub-bearing'. A few are viviparous, which include man, the pony, the seal, and all other animals that are hair-lined, and, of marine animals, the cetaceans, as the dolphin, and the so-called Selachia. (of these latter animals, some have a tubular air-passage and no gills, because the dolphin and the whale: the dolphin with the air-passage going via its returned, the whale with the air-passage in its brow; others have uncovered gills, because the Selachia, the sharks and rays.)

What we time period an egg is a sure completed end result of conception out of which the animal that is to be develops, and in this sort of way that in respect to its primitive germ it comes from element simplest of the egg, even as the relaxation serves for food because the germ develops. A 'grub' on the other hand is a factor out of which in its entirety the animal in its entirety develops, by means of differentiation and growth of the embryo.

Of viviparous animals, some hatch eggs of their own indoors, as creatures of the shark kind; others engender of their indoors a stay foetus, as man and the horse. When the end result of thought is perfected, with some animals a dwelling creature is delivered forth, with others an egg is delivered to light, with others a grub. Of the eggs, a few have egg-shells and are of extraordinary colorations inside, such as birds' eggs; others are smooth-skinned and of uniform color, as the eggs of animals of the shark type. Of the grubs, a few are from the first able to motion, others are immobile. However, with reference to those phenomena we shall talk exactly hereafter while we come to deal with of generation.

Furthermore, a few animals have feet and some are destitute thereof. Of

Together with have feet a few animals have , as is the case with guys and birds, and with men and birds simplest; a few have four, as the lizard and the dog; a few have greater, because the centipede and the bee; but allsoever that have feet have a good variety of them.

Of swimming creatures that are destitute of feet, a few have winglets or fins, as fishes: and of those a few have 4 fins, two above at the returned, two below on the belly, because the gilthead and the basse; a few have two only,-to wit, consisting of are surprisingly long and smooth, because the eel and the conger; a few have none in any respect, as the muraena, however use the ocean just as snakes use dry floor-and through the manner, snakes swim in water in just the same way. Of the shark-kind a few don't have any fins, together with those that are flat and long-tailed, because the ray and the edge-ray, but those fishes swim genuinely by the undulatory movement in their flat our bodies; the fishing frog, but, has fins, and so likewise have all such fishes as have no longer their flat surfaces thinned off to a sharp facet.

Of those swimming creatures that seem to have ft, as is the case with the molluscs, these creatures swim by the useful resource in their toes and their fins as properly, and they swim maximum hastily backwards within the direction of the trunk, as is the case with the cuttle-fish or sepia and the calamary; and, by using the manner, neither of these latter can stroll as the poulpe or octopus can.

The hard-skinned or crustaceous animals, like the crawfish, swim through the instrumentality of their tail-elements; and they swim most hastily tail predominant, by means of the resource of the fins advanced upon that member. The newt swims with the aid of its feet and tail; and its tail resembles that of the sheatfish, to examine little with first rate.

Of animals which can fly a few are furnished with feathered wings, because the eagle and the hawk; a few are supplied with membranous wings, as the bee and the cockchafer; others are furnished with leathern wings, as the flying fox and the bat. All flying creatures possessed of blood have feathered wings or leathern wings; the bloodless creatures have membranous wings, as bugs. The creatures which have feathered wings or leathern wings have

Either feet or no feet in any respect: for there are said to be sure flying serpents in Ethiopia which can be destitute of ft.

Creatures which have feathered wings are classed as a genus beneath the call of 'hen'; the other genera, the leathern-winged and membrane-winged, are as yet without a widespread title.

Of creatures which can fly and are cold a few are coleopterous or sheath- winged, for they have their wings in a sheath or shard, just like the cockchafer and the dung-beetle; others are sheathless, and of those latter a few are dipterous and some tetrapterous: tetrapterous, which includes are comparatively huge or have their stings inside the tail, dipterous, together with are relatively small or have their stings in front. The coleoptera are, without exception, devoid of stings; the diptera have the sting in the front, because the fly, the horsefly, the gadfly, and the gnat.

Bloodless animals as a wellknown rule are inferior in factor of length to blooded animals; though, by using the manner, there are observed within the sea some few cold creatures of extraordinary size, as within the case of sure molluscs. And of those cold genera, the ones are the largest that reside in milder climates, and those that inhabit the sea are larger than the ones dwelling on dry land or in fresh water.

All creatures which might be able to movement pass with 4 or extra factors of motion; the blooded animals with four handiest: as, for instance, man with two arms and two ft, birds with wings and feet, quadrupeds and fishes severally with 4 feet and four fins. Creatures which have two winglets or fins, or which have none in any respect like serpents, pass all of the equal with no longer much less than 4 points of movement; for there are four bends in their bodies as they move, or two bends together with their fins. Bloodless and lots of footed animals, whether provided with wings or toes, move with greater than 4 factors of motion; as, as an example, the dayfly actions with four toes and four wings: and, I can also look at in passing, this creature is fantastic now not most effective in regard to the length of its lifestyles, whence it receives its name, however additionally because although a quadruped it has wings additionally.

All animals flow alike, four-footed and lots of-footed; in different words, they

All flow cross-nook-smart. And animals in fashionable have ft earlier; the crab alone has 4.

6.

Very giant genera of animals, into which different subdivisions fall, are the subsequent: one, of birds; one, of fishes; and every other, of cetaceans. Now these kind of creatures are blooded.

There's another genus of the tough-shell type, which is called oyster; any other of the gentle-shell kind, no longer as yet detailed via a unmarried term, inclusive of the spiny crawfish and the numerous types of crabs and lobsters; and any other of molluscs, as the 2 kinds of calamary and the cuttle-fish; that of bugs is one of a kind. Some of these latter creatures are cold, and such of them as have toes have a goodly range of them; and of the insects a few have wings in addition to ft.

Of the other animals the genera are not large. For in them one species does not recognize many species; however in a single case, as guy, the species is simple, admitting of no differentiation, whilst other instances admit of differentiation, however the bureaucracy lack specific designations.

So, as an example, creatures which might be qudapedal and unprovided with wings are blooded without exception, but a number of them are viviparous, and some oviparous. Along with are viviparous are hair-covered, and including are oviparous are blanketed with a form of tessellated tough substance; and the tessellated bits of this substance are, because it were, comparable in regard to position to a scale. An animal that is blooded and capable of movement on dry land, but is certainly unprovided with ft, belongs to the serpent genus; and animals of this genus are covered with the tessellated attractive substance. Serpents in standard are oviparous; the adder, an top notch case, is viviparous: for no longer all viviparous animals are hair-covered, and a few fishes also are viviparous.

All animals, however, which are hair-covered are viviparous. For, by using the manner, one should regard as a sort of hair such prickly hairs as hedgehogs and

porcupines bring; for these spines perform the office of hair, and no longer of feet as is the case with comparable components of sea-urchins.

Within the genus that combines all viviparous quadrupeds are many species, but under no common appellation. They're handiest named as it were separately, as we say guy, lion, stag, horse, dog, and so forth; though, by means of the manner, there may be a sort of genus that embraces all creatures which have hairy manes and bushy tails, such as the horse, the ass, the mule, the jennet, and the animals which might be referred to as Hemioni in Syria,-from their externally corresponding to mules, though they're now not strictly of the same species. And that they're now not so is proved by the truth that they mate with and breed from one another. For a majority of these reasons, we have to take animals species by way of species, and speak their peculiarities severally'

Those previous statements, then, had been recommend hence in a general way, as a type of foretaste of the quantity of subjects and of the properties that we need to remember in order that we may also first get a clean notion of distinctive character and not unusual residences. Through and by using we will discuss these topics with more minuteness.

After this we will bypass directly to the discussion of reasons. For to do that whilst the research of the details is entire is the proper and herbal technique, and that whereby the topics and the premisses of our argument will afterwards be rendered undeniable.

Inside the first place we need to appearance to the constituent components of animals. For it's far in a manner relative to those components, first and principal, that animals of their entirety differ from one another: both inside the truth that a few have this or that, even as they have no longer that or this; or through peculiarities of role or of arrangement; or via the variations which have been previously stated, relying upon range of form, or excess or disorder on this or that particular, on analogy, or on contrasts of the accidental features.

First of all, we have to think about the components of guy. For, simply as every nation is wont to reckon with the aid of that monetary wellknown with which it's miles most acquainted, so need to we do in different topics. And, of route, man is the animal with which we're everyone the most acquainted.

Now the elements are obvious enough to physical perception. However, with the view of gazing due order and collection and of mixing rational notions with physical belief, we shall continue to enumerate the elements: first off, the natural, and afterwards the simple or non-composite.

7.

The leader elements into which the frame as a whole is subdivided, are the pinnacle, the neck, the trunk (extending from the neck to the privy elements), which is known as the thorax, arms and legs.

Of the parts of which the pinnacle is composed the hair-protected portion is called the 'cranium'. The front portion of it's far termed 'bregma' or 'sinciput', evolved after birth-for it's miles the remaining of all of the bones inside the frame to collect solidity, the preclude part is named the 'occiput', and the element intervening among the sinciput and the occiput is the 'crown'. The mind lies beneath the sinciput; the occiput is hole. The skull is composed totally of skinny bone, rounded in shape, and contained inside a wrapper of fleshless skin.

The cranium has sutures: one, of circular form, inside the case of women; inside the case of men, as a wellknown rule, 3 assembly at a point. Times have been regarded of a man's cranium without suture altogether. In the skull the center line, wherein the hair elements, is called the crown or vertex. In some instances the parting is double; this is to mention, some guys are double topped, no longer in regard to the bony cranium, however in outcome of the double fall or set of the hair.

Eight.

The part that lies below the skull is called the 'face': but in the case of guy best, for the term is not implemented to a fish or to an ox. In the face the component below the sinciput and among the eyes is called the forehead. Whilst men have huge foreheads, they may be sluggish to transport; after they have small ones, they're fickle; after they have broad ones, they're apt to be distraught;

Once they have foreheads rounded or bulging out, they are short- tempered.

9.

Beneath the brow are eyebrows. Straight eyebrows are a signal of softness of disposition; consisting of curve in toward the nose, of harshness; together with curve out toward the temples, of humour and dissimulation; together with are drawn in closer to one another, of jealousy.

Under the eyebrows come the eyes. Those are clearly in quantity. Every of them has an higher and a lower eyelid, and the hairs on the rims of these are termed 'eyelashes'. The primary part of the attention consists of the moist part whereby imaginative and prescient is effected, termed the 'pupil', and the part surrounding it known as the 'black'; the element out of doors that is the 'white'. A component common to the upper and lower eyelid is a pair of nicks or corners, one in the direction of the nostril, and the opposite in the path of the temples.

When those are lengthy they're a signal of awful disposition; if the side closer to the nose be fleshy and comb-like, they're a sign of dishonesty.

All animals, as a wellknown rule, are provided with eyes, excepting the ostracoderms and different imperfect creatures; at all occasions, all viviparous animals have eyes, apart from the mole. And yet one might assert that, even though the mole has no longer eyes inside the full experience, yet it has eyes in a sort of a way. For in point of absolute reality it can't see, and has no eyes visible externally; but when the outer pores and skin is removed, it is observed to have the location in which eyes are generally situated, and the black components of the eyes rightly located, and all the region that is typically committed at the out of doors to eyes: displaying that the components are stunted in development, and the skin allowed to develop over.

Of the eye the white is pretty a good deal the identical in all creatures; however what's known as the black differs in diverse animals. Some have the rim black, some

Relatively blue, some greyish-blue, some greenish; and this ultimate shade is the sign of an wonderful disposition, and is in particular nicely adapted for sharpness of imaginative and prescient. Man is the only, or nearly the most effective, creature, that has eyes of various colorings. Animals, often, have eyes of 1 coloration handiest. Some horses have blue eyes.

Of eyes, some are large, a few small, a few medium-sized; of these, the medium-sized are the exceptional. Moreover, eyes every now and then protrude, now and again recede, sometimes are neither protruding nor receding. Of these, the receding eye is in all animals the maximum acute; however the last kind are the signal of the satisfactory disposition. Again, eyes are now and again inclined to wink underneath remark, every so often to stay open and staring, and every so often are disposed neither to wink nor stare. The last kind are the sign of the best nature, and of the others, the latter kind indicates impudence, and the previous indecision.

Eleven.

Furthermore, there is a part of the head, wherein an animal hears, a element incapable of breathing, the ‘ear'. I say 'incapable of breathing', for Alcmaeon is flawed whilst he says that goats inspire through their ears. Of the ear one component is unnamed, the other element is referred to as the 'lobe'; and it's far entirely composed of gristle and flesh. The ear is built internally just like the trumpet-shell, and the innermost bone is just like the ear itself, and into it at the cease the sound makes its way, as into the lowest of a jar. This receptacle does not communicate by any passage with the brain, but does so with the palate, and a vein extends from the brain closer to it. The eyes are also related with the brain, and each of them lies on the stop of a little vein. Of animals possessed of ears man is the only one which can't circulate this organ. Of creatures possessed of listening to, a few have ears, at the same time as others have none, however merely have the passages for ears seen, as, as an instance, feathered animals or animals coated with attractive tessellates.

Viviparous animals, excluding the seal, the dolphin, and people others which after a similar style to those are cetaceans, are all furnished with ears; for, with the aid of the manner, the shark-kind are also viviparous. Now, the seal

Has the passages visible wherein it hears; however the dolphin can hear, however has no ears, nor yet any passages visible. However guy alone is unable to move his ears, and all different animals can pass them. And the ears lie, with guy, within the equal horizontal aircraft with the eyes, and now not in a plane above them as is the case with a few quadrupeds. Of ears, some are first-class, some are coarse, and some are of medium texture; the last type are first-rate for listening to, but they serve in no manner to indicate man or woman. Some ears are huge, a few small, some medium-sized; again, a few stand out a ways, some lie in near and tight, and some absorb a medium function; of those together with are of medium length and of medium role are warning signs of the first-class disposition, even as the huge and splendid ones suggest a bent to irrelevant speak or chattering. The element intercepted among the attention, the ear, and the crown is named the 'temple'. Again, there's part of the countenance that serves as a passage for the breath, the 'nose'. For a person inhales and exhales via this organ, and sneezing is effected via its method: which closing is an outward rush of accrued breath, and is the most effective mode of breath used as an omen and appeared as supernatural. Both inhalation and exhalation move right on from the nostril toward the chest; and with the nostrils alone and separately it's far not possible to inhale or exhale, thanks to the fact that the inspiration and respiration take vicinity from the chest along the windpipe, and now not by using any element related with the top; and certainly it's far feasible for a creature to stay with out the use of this procedure of nasal respiration.

Again, smelling takes region by using the nose,-smelling, or the practical discrimination of odour. And the nose admits of smooth movement, and isn't, just like the ear, intrinsically immovable. A part of it, composed of gristle, constitutes, a septum or partition, and component is an open passage; for the nose consists of separate channels. The nostril (or nose) of the elephant is long and robust, and the animal makes use of it like a hand; for by this organ it draws gadgets closer to it, and takes hold of them, and introduces its food into its mouth, whether or not liquid or dry meals, and it's far the handiest living creature that does so.

Moreover, there are jaws; the front a part of them constitutes the chin, and the avoid part the cheek. All animals move the lower jaw, with the exception of the river crocodile; this creature movements the upper jaw most effective.

Next after the nose come two lips, composed of flesh, and facile of movement. The mouth lies within the jaws and lips. Parts of the mouth are the roof or palate and the pharynx.

The part this is practical of taste is the tongue. The feeling has its seat on the tip of the tongue; if the item to be tasted be placed at the flat floor of the organ, the taste is much less sensibly experienced. The tongue is touchy in all different ways in which flesh in preferred is so: that is, it could appreciate hardness, or warm temperature and cold, in any part of it, simply as it may recognize flavor. The tongue is once in a while wide, now and again narrow, and now and again of medium width; the ultimate type is the first-class and the clearest in its

Discrimination of taste. Furthermore, the tongue is once in a while loosely hung, and every so often mounted: as within the case of those who mumble and who lisp.

The tongue includes flesh, tender and spongy, and the so-called 'epiglottis' is part of this organ.

That part of the mouth that splits into bits is known as the 'tonsils'; that element that splits into many bits, the 'gums'. Each the tonsils and the gums are composed of flesh. Within the gums are enamel, composed of bone.

Inside the mouth is another part, shaped like a group of grapes, a pillar streaked with veins. If this pillar receives comfy and inflamed it's miles known as ‘uvula' or 'bunch of grapes', and it then has an inclination to result in suffocation.

12.

The neck is the element among the face and the trunk. Of this the front component is the larynx land the back component the ur The front part, composed of gristle, through which respiration and speech is effected, is termed the 'windpipe'; the part this is fleshy is the oesophagus, internal just in front of the chine. The part to the again of the neck is the epomis, or 'shoulder-factor'.

These then are the elements to be met with earlier than you come to the thorax.

To the trunk there is a the front part and a lower back component. Subsequent after the neck in the the front element is the chest, with a pair of breasts. To each of the breasts is hooked up a teat or nipple, through which in the case of ladies the milk

Percolates; and the breast is of a spongy texture. Milk, via the way, is located at times in the male; but with the male the flesh of the breast is difficult, with the woman it's far soft and porous.

Thirteen.

Next after the thorax and in front comes the 'stomach', and its root the 'navel'. Underneath this root the bilateral component is the 'flank': the undivided component below the navel, the 'abdomen', the extremity of that is the region of the 'pubes'; above the navel the 'hypochondrium'; the cavity common to the hypochondrium and the flank is the intestine-cavity.

Serving as a brace girdle to the restrict elements is the pelvis, and subsequently it gets its call (osphus), for it's far symmetrical (isophues) in appearance; of the fundament the part for resting on is termed the 'rump', and the element whereon the thigh pivots is named the 'socket' (or acetabulum).

The 'womb' is part extraordinary to the woman; and the 'penis' is ordinary to the male. This latter organ is external and located at the extremity of the trunk; it's far composed of separate parts: of which the extreme element is fleshy, does now not regulate in length, and is referred to as the glans; and round approximately it's miles a pores and skin devoid of any specific identify, which integument if it's cut asunder never grows collectively again, any more than does the jaw or the eyelid.

And the connexion between the latter and the glans is referred to as the frenum. The remaining part of the penis is composed of gristle; it's far effortlessly susceptible of expansion; and it protrudes and recedes inside the opposite instructions to what's observable in the same organ in cats. Beneath the penis are two 'testicles', and the integument of these is a skin that is termed the 'scrotum'. Testicles aren't identical with flesh, and are not altogether various from it. However with the aid of and via we shall treat in an exhaustive way concerning all such parts.

14.

The privy a part of the girl is in person contrary to that of the male. In other words, the part beneath the pubes is hole or receding, and now not, like

The male organ, protruding. Further, there is an ‘urethra' outdoor the womb; which organ serves as a passage for the sperm of the male, and as an outlet for liquid excretion to both sexes).

The element not unusual to the neck and chest is the 'throat'; the ‘armpit' is not unusual to aspect, arm, and shoulder; and the 'groin' is commonplace to thigh and abdomen. The component inside the thigh and buttocks is the 'perineum', and the part outdoor the thigh and buttocks is the 'hypoglutis'.

The front parts of the trunk have now been enumerated.

The component in the back of the chest is named the 'returned'.

15.

Parts of the again are a couple of 'shoulderblades', the 'returned-bone', and, underneath on a level with the belly in the trunk, the 'loins'. Not unusual to the upper and decrease part of the trunk are the ‘ribs', 8 on both facet, for as to the so-known as seven-ribbed Ligyans we've got now not received any honest proof.

Man, then, has an top and a lower component, a front and a back component, a right and a left aspect. Now the right and the left facet are pretty nicely alike in their parts and same at some stage in, besides that the left aspect is the weaker of the 2; but the again elements do now not resemble the the front ones, neither do the decrease ones the higher: best that those upper and lower parts can be said to resemble each other thus far, that, if the face be plump or meagre, the abdomen is plump or meagre to correspond; and that the legs correspond to the arms, and where the higher arm is brief the thigh is usually quick also, and where the toes are small the fingers are small correspondingly.

Of the limbs, one set, forming a pair, is ‘arms'. To the arm belong the 'shoulder', 'upper-arm', 'elbow', 'fore-arm', and ‘hand'. To the hand belong the ‘palm', and the 5 ‘fingers'. The a part of the finger that bends is named 'knuckle', the element this is inflexible is called the 'phalanx'. The big finger or thumb is unmarried-jointed, the other arms are double jointed. The bending each of the arm and of the finger takes region from without inwards in all

Cases; and the arm bends at the elbow. The inner part of the hand is called the palm', and is fleshy and divided through joints or strains: inside the case of long-lived human beings by means of one or two extending proper throughout, in the case of the quick-lived by means of two, no longer so extending. The joint between hand and arm is named the 'wrist'. The out of doors or lower back of the hand is sinewy, and has no precise designation.

There may be any other reproduction limb, the 'leg'. Of this limb the double-knobbed part is called the 'thigh-bone', the sliding part of the 'kneecap', the double- boned element the 'leg'; the front a part of this latter is called the 'shin', and the part behind it the 'calf', wherein the flesh is sinewy and venous, in some cases drawn upwards toward the hole at the back of the knee, as within the case of humans with huge hips, and in different cases drawn downwards. The lower extremity of the shin is the 'ankle', replica in both leg. The part of the limb that incorporates a multiplicity of bones is the 'foot'. The restrict a part of the foot is the 'heel'; at the the front of it the divided component consists of 'toes', five in variety; the fleshy component under is the 'ball'; the upper component or again of the foot is sinewy and has no precise appellation; of the toe, one portion is the 'nail' and another the 'joint', and the nail is in all cases on the extremity; and ft are without exception unmarried jointed. Men that have the inner or sole of the foot clumsy and no longer arched, this is, that stroll resting on the complete below-surface of their feet, are susceptible to roguery. The joint not unusual to thigh and shin is the 'knee'.

Those, then, are the elements not unusual to the male and the girl intercourse. The relative position of the components as to up and down, or to front and back, or to proper and left, all this as regards externals might correctly be left to mere everyday belief. But for all that, we should deal with of them for the identical motive as the one formerly delivered ahead; this is to say, we have to discuss with them simply so a due and normal sequence may be located in our exposition, and just so through the enumeration of these obvious records due attention can be subsequently given to those parts in men and other animals which are various in any manner from each other.

In man, mainly different animals, the phrases 'upper' and 'decrease' are utilized in concord with their natural positions; for in him, top and lower have the identical that means as while they're applied to the universe as an entire. In like

Manner the terms, ‘in the front', 'behind', 'right' and 'left', are used according with their natural feel. However in regard to other animals, in some cases those distinctions do no longer exist, and in others they accomplish that, but in a indistinct way. For instance, the pinnacle with all animals is up and above in appreciate to their bodies; however guy alone, as has been said, has, in adulthood, this part uppermost in recognize to the material universe.

Next after the top comes the neck, after which the chest and the lower back: the one in front and the other behind. Next after these come the stomach, the loins, the sexual components, and the haunches; then the thigh and shin; and, lastly, the ft.

The legs bend frontwards, inside the course of real progression, and frontwards additionally lies that a part of the foot which is the handiest of motion, and the flexure of that part; however the heel lies at the back, and the anklebones lie laterally, earwise. The palms are located to right and left, and bend inwards: so that the convexities fashioned by using bent legs and arms are almost head to head with one another within the case of man.

As for the senses and for the organs of sensation, the eyes, the nostrils, and the tongue, all alike are located frontwards; the experience of hearing, and the organ of hearing, the ear, is situated sideways, at the identical horizontal plane with the eyes. The eyes in guy are, in proportion to his size, nearer to one another than in another animal.

Of the senses guy has the feel of contact extra delicate than any animal, and so also, but in much less degree, the sense of taste; in the improvement of the alternative senses he is exceeded by means of a incredible variety of animals.

16.

The parts, then, which can be externally visible are arranged within the way above said, and commonly have their special designations, and from use and wont are acknowledged familiarly to all; however this isn't the case with the inner elements. For the truth is that the inner components of guy are to a totally first rate extent unknown, and the consequence is that we need to have recourse to an examination of

The internal components of other animals whose nature in any way resembles that of

Guy.

Within the first vicinity then, the brain lies inside the front part of the pinnacle. And this holds alike with all animals possessed of a brain; and all blooded animals are possessed thereof, and, by means of the way, molluscs as properly. But, taking length for length of animal, the largest mind, and the moistest, is that of man. Two membranes enclose it: the more potent one near the bone of the skull; the internal one, spherical the mind itself, is finer. The brain in all cases is bilateral. In the back of this, right on the again, comes what's termed the 'cerebellum', differing in shape from the brain as we can also each sense and spot.

The returned of the head is with all animals empty and hole, something be its size inside the distinct animals. For a few creatures have massive heads at the same time as the face underneath is small in proportion, as is the case with round-confronted animals; some have little heads and long jaws, as is the case, without exception, among animals of the mane-and-tail species.

The mind in all animals is cold, devoid of veins, and clearly cold to touch; within the superb majority of animals it has a small hole in its centre. The mind-caul round it's far reticulated with veins; and this brain-caul is that pores and skin- like membrane which intently surrounds the mind. Above the mind is the thinnest and weakest bone of the pinnacle, that is termed or 'sinciput'.

From the eye there move three ducts to the brain: the most important and the medium- sized to the cerebellum, the least to the mind itself; and the least is the one situated nearest to the nose. The two biggest ones, then, run side by side and do now not meet; the medium-sized ones meet-and that is especially seen in fishes, for they lie nearer than the big ones to the brain; the smallest pair are the most broadly become independent from one another, and do now not meet.

Inside the neck is what is termed the oesophagus (whose other name is derived oesophagus from its period and narrowness), and the windpipe. The windpipe is located in the front of the oesophagus in all animals that have a windpipe, and all animals have one which might be provided with lungs. The windpipe is made up of gristle, is sparingly provided with blood, and is streaked all spherical with numerous minute veins; it's miles situated, in its top element, near the mouth, under the aperture fashioned by using the nostrils into the

Mouth-an aperture through which, whilst men, in ingesting, inhale any of the liquid, this liquid reveals its manner out thru the nostrils. In betwixt the two openings comes the so-called epiglottis, an organ able to being drawn over and masking the orifice of the windpipe speaking with the mouth; the cease of the tongue is connected to the epiglottis. Inside the other course the windpipe extends to the c programming language among the lungs, and hereupon bifurcates into every of the 2 divisions of the lung; for the lung in all animals possessed of the organ has an inclination to be double. In viviparous animals, however, the duplication isn't so it seems that discernible as in different species, and the duplication is least discernible in guy. And in man the organ is not cut up into many parts, as is the case with a few vivipara, nor is it easy, but its surface is uneven.

Inside the case of the ovipara, which includes birds and oviparous quadrupeds, the 2 components of the organ are separated to a distance from each other, so that the creatures look like provided with a couple of lungs; and from the windpipe, itself unmarried, there department off two separate parts extending to every of the two divisions of the lung. It's miles connected also to the great vein and to what's targeted the 'aorta'. Whilst the windpipe is charged with air, the air passes directly to the hole elements of the lung. These parts have divisions, composed of gristle, which meet at an acute perspective; from the divisions run passages via the complete lung, giving off smaller and smaller ramifications. The coronary heart is also connected to the windpipe, through connexions of fat, gristle, and sinew; and on the point of juncture there is a hollow. While the windpipe is charged with air, the entrance of the air into the coronary heart, even though imperceptible in some animals, is perceptible sufficient in the larger ones. Such are the properties of the windpipe, and it takes in and throws out air most effective, and takes in not anything else either dry or liquid, otherwise it reasons you pain till you shall have coughed up anything may additionally have gone down.

The oesophagus communicates at the top with the mouth, near the windpipe, and is hooked up to the backbone and the windpipe by means of

Membranous ligaments, and at closing unearths its manner through the midriff into the stomach. It is composed of flesh-like substance, and is elastic both lengthways and breadthways.

The belly of guy resembles that of a canine; for it isn't always a great deal larger than the bowel, however is relatively like a bowel of extra than usual width; then comes the bowel, unmarried, convoluted, moderately huge. The lower a part of the intestine is like that of a pig; for it's miles extensive, and the component from it to the buttocks is thick and short. The caul, or exquisite omentum, is hooked up to the middle of the stomach, and consists of a fatty membrane, as is the case with all other animals whose stomachs are unmarried and which have tooth in each jaws.

The mesentery is over the bowels; this is also membranous and broad, and turns to fat. It is attached to the top notch vein and the aorta, and there run thru it some of veins closely packed collectively, extending toward the location of the bowels, starting above and ending under.

A lot for the homes of the oesophagus, the windpipe, and the stomach.

17.

The coronary heart has 3 cavities, and is located above the lung at the department of the windpipe, and is supplied with a fatty and thick membrane where it fastens on to the brilliant vein and the aorta. It lies with its tapering element upon the aorta, and this element is similarly situated in relation to the chest in all animals that have a chest. In all animals alike, in those who have a chest and in people who have none, the apex of the coronary heart factors forwards, despite the fact that this reality may probably get away be aware with the aid of a change of role underneath dissection. The rounded give up of the heart at the pinnacle. The apex is to a incredible volume fleshy and near in texture, and within the cavities of the coronary heart are sinews. Probably the coronary heart is situated in the center of the chest in animals that have a chest, and in man it's miles situated a little to the left-hand aspect, leaning a little way from the division of the breasts closer to the left breast within the top part of the chest.

The heart isn't huge, and in its general form it is not elongated; in fact, it's far quite round in shape: handiest, be it remembered, it's miles sharp-pointed at the bottom. It has 3 cavities, as has been stated: the right-hand one the largest

Of the three, the left-hand one the least, and the middle one intermediate in length. Most of these cavities, even the two small ones, are linked by way of passages with the lung, and this truth is rendered pretty undeniable in one of the cavities. And under, on the point of attachment, in the largest hollow space there may be a connexion with the outstanding vein (near which the mesentery lies); and within the center one there may be a connexion with the aorta.

Canals lead from the heart into the lung, and branch off just as the windpipe does, strolling all over the lung parallel with the passages from the windpipe. The canals from the coronary heart are uppermost; and there is no commonplace passage, however the passages via their having a common wall receive the breath and skip it directly to the heart; and one of the passages conveys it to the right cavity, and the other to the left.

With reference to the wonderful vein and the aorta we shall, by means of and by means of, treat of them collectively in a discussion dedicated to them and to them on my own. In all animals which are furnished with a lung, and which are both internally and externally viviparous, the lung is of all organs the maximum richly furnished with blood; for the lung is in the course of spongy in texture, and alongside by using each unmarried pore in it cross branches from the exceptional vein. Individuals who imagine it to be empty are altogether fallacious; and they are led into their blunders by way of their remark of lungs eliminated from animals beneath dissection, out of which organs the blood had all escaped straight away after loss of life.

Of the opposite internal organs the coronary heart on my own includes blood. And the lung has blood not in itself but in its veins, however the heart has blood in itself; for in each of its three cavities it has blood, however the thinnest blood is what it has in its principal hollow space.

Under the lung comes the thoracic diaphragm or midriff, connected to the ribs, the hypochondria and the backbone, with a thin membrane inside the center of it. It has veins walking via it; and the diaphragm in the case of man is thicker in share to the dimensions of his frame than in other animals. Below the diaphragm on the proper-hand facet lies the 'liver', and at the left- hand facet the 'spleen', alike in all animals which are furnished with these organs in an everyday and now not preternatural way; for, be it located, in some

Quadrupeds these organs have been found in a transposed role. These organs are linked with the stomach via the caul.

To outward view the spleen of man is slender and long, resembling the self- identical organ within the pig. The liver in the amazing majority of animals isn't always furnished with a ‘gall-bladder'; but the latter is present in some. The liver of a man is spherical-fashioned, and resembles the identical organ within the ox. And, by using the way, the absence above cited of a gall-bladder is at instances met with in the exercise of augury. For instance, in a certain district of the Chalcidic agreement in Euboea the sheep are without gall-bladders; and in Naxos almost all of the quadrupeds have one so huge that foreigners when they provide sacrifice with such sufferers are bewildered with fright, beneath the influence that the phenomenon isn't because of herbal reasons, but bodes a few mischief to the person offerers of the sacrifice.

Again, the liver is attached to the super vein, however it has no communication with the aorta; for the vein that goes off from the terrific vein is going right via the liver, at a factor wherein are the so-known as 'portals' of the liver. The spleen is also linked handiest with the exceptional vein, for a vein extends to the spleen off from it.

After these organs come the 'kidneys', and these are positioned close to the backbone, and resemble in man or woman the same organ in kine. In all animals which are supplied with this organ, the proper kidney is situated better up than the other. It has additionally much less fatty substance than the left-hand one and is much less moist. And this phenomenon also is observable in all of the different animals alike.

Moreover, passages or ducts lead into the kidneys each from the terrific vein and from the aorta, handiest now not into the hollow space. For, with the aid of the manner, there's a cavity in the middle of the kidney, larger in a few creatures and much less in others; but there may be none inside the case of the seal. This latter animal has kidneys such as in form the same organ in kine, however in its case the organs are more strong than in any other regarded creature. The ducts that lead into the kidneys lose themselves in the substance of the kidneys themselves; and the proof that they enlarge no farther rests at the fact that they comprise no blood, neither is any clot located therein. The kidneys, however, have, as has been stated, a small cavity. From this cavity inside the kidney there lead

Giant ducts or ureters into the bladder; and others spring from the aorta, robust and non-stop. And to the center of every of the two kidneys is hooked up a hole sinewy vein, stretching right along the spine thru the narrows; through and by using these veins are lost in either loin, and once more emerge as visible extending to the flank. And those off-branchings of the veins terminate in the bladder. For the bladder lies on the extremity, and is held in position by the ducts stretching from the kidneys, along the stalk that extends to the urethra; and pretty nicely all spherical it is mounted by using excellent sinewy membranes, that resemble to some extent the thoracic diaphragm. The bladder in man is, proportionately to his length, tolerably big.

To the stalk of the bladder the personal component is hooked up, the external orifices coalescing; but a bit lower down, one of the openings communicates with the testicles and the other with the bladder. The penis is gristly and sinewy in its texture. With it are related the testicles in male animals, and the properties of these organs we will discuss in our fashionable account of the said organ.

A lot of these organs are similar within the girl; for there may be no distinction in regard to the inner organs, besides in appreciate to the womb, and on the subject of the advent of this organ I have to refer the reader to diagrams in my 'Anatomy'. The womb, however, is located over the bowel, and the bladder lies over the womb. However we ought to treat through and with the aid of in our pages of the womb of all girl animals regarded normally. For the wombs of all female animals are not identical, neither do their nearby dispositions coincide.

These are the organs, inner and outside, of guy, and such is their nature and such their nearby disposition.

1.

In regards to animals in trendy, some parts or organs are not unusual to all, as has been said, and a few are commonplace handiest to specific genera; the elements, moreover, are same with or exceptional from each other on the traces already again and again laid down. For as a preferred rule all animals which can be generically wonderful have most of the people of their parts or organs extraordinary in shape or species; and some of them they've most effective analogically comparable and numerous in kind or genus, even as they have others which are alike in kind however particularly various; and plenty of parts or organs exist in some animals, however not in others.

As an example, viviparous quadrupeds have all a head and a neck, and all of the parts or organs of the top, but they differ each from other in the shapes of the parts. The lion has its neck composed of 1 unmarried bone in place of vertebrae; however, whilst dissected, the animal is determined in all internal characters to resemble the canine.

The quadrupedal vivipara instead of hands have forelegs. This is actual of all quadrupeds, however such of them as have feet have, almost speaking, organs analogous to palms; at all occasions, they use those fore-limbs for many purposes as palms. And they have the limbs on the left-hand aspect less wonderful from the ones at the right than guy.

The fore-limbs then serve more or much less the cause of hands in quadrupeds, apart from the elephant. This latter animal has its toes incredibly indistinctly defined, and its front legs are a whole lot larger than its hinder ones; it's far five-toed, and has brief ankles to its hind ft. However it has a nostril such in houses and such in length as to allow of its using the identical for a hand. For it eats and beverages through lifting up its meals with the resource of this organ into its mouth, and with the identical organ it lifts up articles to the motive force on its again; with this organ it is able to pluck up bushes by means of the roots, and while walking through water it spouts the water up by way of it; and this organ is able to being

Crooked or coiled at the tip, but now not of flexing like a joint, for it is composed of gristle.

Of all animals man by myself can discover ways to make same use of each fingers.

All animals have a component analogous to the chest in guy, but not just like his; for the chest in man is broad, however that of all different animals is slender. Furthermore, no different animal but guy has breasts in front; the elephant, truly, has breasts, no longer but in the chest, but close to it.

Furthermore, additionally, animals have the flexions of their fore and hind limbs in directions opposite to one another, and in directions the reverse of those observed in the legs and arms of man; apart from the elephant. In different words, with the viviparous quadrupeds the the front legs bend forwards and the hind ones backwards, and the concavities of the two pairs of limbs accordingly face each other.

The elephant does no longer sleep standing, as some have been wont to assert, but it bends its legs and settles down; simplest that in outcome of its weight it can not bend its leg on each facets concurrently, however falls into a recumbent position on one aspect or the alternative, and on this position it goes to sleep. And it bends its hind legs just as a man bends his legs.

In the case of the ovipara, as the crocodile and the lizard and the like, both pairs of legs, fore and hind, bend forwards, with a mild swerve on one side. The flexion is similar within the case of the multipeds; only that the legs in among the intense ends always pass in a way intermediate between that of those in the front and people in the back of, and for that reason bend sideways in place of backwards or forwards. However man bends his hands and his legs in the direction of the same factor, and therefore in opposite ways: this is to say, he bends his palms backwards, with just a moderate inclination inwards, and his legs frontwards. No animal bends each its fore-limbs and hind-limbs backwards; however within the case of all animals the flexion of the shoulders is in the opposite course to that of the elbows or the joints of the forelegs, and the flexure within the hips to that of the knees of the hind-legs: so that on the grounds that guy differs from other animals in flexion, those animals that own such components as these flow them contrariwise to guy.