The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of American Presidents: Part 7

All too often, American presidents are generalized. This one was good, this one was bad, or all of them were bad before or after this point. In reality, each President has positive or negative aspects that may be frequently overlooked. Sometimes what seemed good at the time is not so good in retrospect, or what was controversial would be accepted today. In this series, we'll look at the highlights of each President from the founding of America to today.

In Part 6, we looked at the presidencies of Zachary Taylor, Millard Filmore, and Franklin Pierce. We now continue with two more presidents, James Buchanan and Abraham Lincoln.

15. James Buchanan (in office March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861 )

Had a successful law practice, and was first elected to the Pennsylvania state House of Representatives as a Federalist.

Represented Pennsylvania in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Joined the Democratic Party.

Served as minister to Russia under president Andrew Jackson.

Served as Secretary of State under presidents Polk and Taylor.

Served as minister to the United Kingdom under president Franklin Pierce.

Achievements as President

Never married, making him the only president to remain a lifelong bachelor. He relied upon his favorite niece to serve as First Lady for state functions.

Last president born in the 18th century.

Until Joe Biden, the only president born in the state of Pennsylvania.

Running against former President Millard Fillmore (running for the anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant Know-Nothing Party) and Republican John Fremont, Buchanan won 45 percent of the popular vote and a clear majority of the electoral votes.

Pledged in his inaugural address to only serve one term, a pledge he upheld.

First president to receive an official telegram sent across the Atlantic Ocean, sent by Britain's Queen Victoria as a message of alliance and peace.

Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas were admitted to the union as states during Buchanan's presidency.

Failures

He favored admitting Kansas into the union as a slave state under the proposed "Lecompton Constitution" draft of the Kansas state constitution. That draft was rejected by Kansans, and Buchanan's support of it angered both Northern and Southern states.

When secession of the states seemed inevitable, he failed to prevent secession, which angered Northern states, and also failed to give Southern states what they wanted, angering them. And when conflict seemed inevitable, he didn't fortify the military.

To avoid the infighting experienced with President Jackson's cabinet, Buchanan set out to create a harmonious cabinet, failing miserably. He sought out people who would agree with him, and some did, but others went on to become loyal to the Confederate States, and he made crucial slights against others that they didn't forget.

In 1857, the first years of his presidency, there was a financial collapse as many banks went bankrupt, particularly in the north. While the core problem seemed to be over-speculation of investment, Buchanan failed to respond properly and didn't offer federal relief, making hunger a common problem in Northern cities with residents of Southern states, which relied on farming, suffered less. While Buchanan had hoped to pay down the national debt during his term, this and other incidents caused the debt to grow by 15%.

After consistently angering Northern states, Buchanan's policies and statements allowed Republicans to take control of Congress in the 1858 election, enabling them to block most of his policies from that point on. Buchanan, in turn, vetoed key pieces of Republican legislation, even when they had strong support from Democrats.

When Abraham Lincoln won the election of 1860, talk of secession of the Southern states reached a fever pitch. In his final address to Congress, Buchanan denied states the right to secede, but also said the federal government was powerless to prevent it, in particular the President, though he thought the issue could be addressed by Congress. His stance against secession, and on other topics, resulted in the resignation of his Treasury Secretary, and South Carolina became the first state to secede, in December of 1860. Six other states seceded before the end of Buchanan's term.

Controversies

While he was a strong proponent of state's rights, he believed slavery was a matter to be determined by the states, not the federal government.

While President Jackson appointed Buchanan minister of Russia, he only did so because he thought of Buchanan as untrustworthy and "an incompetent busybody" and wanted him as far away as possible.

While he was once engaged to a young woman, who died of an overdose of laudanum, and he was rumored to have engaged in a number of affairs with women, including during his engagement (which might have resulted in the laudanum overdose), Buchanan was also widely suspected of being romantically involved with politician and diplomat William Rufus King, who served as Vice President under President Franklin Pierce. Buchanan and King were roommates for some time and often went out together socially. While both of these things were common, President Jackson referred to the two as "Miss Nancy and Miss Fancy", and the names stuck, even after King died of tuberculosis.

After winning election as President, but not yet sworn in, Buchanan wrote to a justice of the Supreme Court to influence the ruling on the infamous Dred Scott case, in which the Court ruled American citizenship would not be extended to residents of African descent. Buchanan supported the decision, and wanted it to silence the growing debates about the issue of slavery.

In his inaugural address, Buchanan railed against the Republican party, calling them dangerous, and citing political attacks against the South. He also said the object of his presidency would be to end divisive politics and unite the nation, something he then failed to do.

Brigham Young and the newly-formed Church of Latter-Day Saints were having armed conflict with non-Mormons in Utah Territory, resulting in considerable bloodshed and defiance of federal authority. While Buchanan managed to quell this problem, which some called a rebellion, and he carved off some of the territory in favor of Nebraska, Nevada, and Colorado, some believe his actions against Young and his followers were insufficient.

While Kansas was finally admitted to the union as a state in January 1861, at the tail end of Buchanan's term, it was as a free state, while Buchanan was trying to maintain support from Southern states by admitting Kansas as a slave state.

The House of Representatives investigated allegations of bribery involving Buchanan and his cabinet, and while they found evidence of a deep system of corruption that even some Democrats could not deny, they could not find enough evidence to garner support for impeachment. Despite this evidence, because the House could not proceed with impeachment, Buchanan declared that he had been vindicated.

Due to many Southern states seceding at the end of his term, and the war breaking out two months after his term ended, many referred to the Civil War as "Buchanan's War." Some stores sold drawings of his face with his eyes colored red, a noose around his neck, and "TRAITOR" written above his head. A motion of formal condemnation was discussed in Congress, but not passed.

16. Abraham Lincoln (in office March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865)

Largely self-educated, he became a successful lawyer and was known to be an excellent speaker and debater.

Known to be an excellent athlete, particularly skilled at wrestling, becoming a county champion when he was 21.

Served in the Illinois Militia as a captain during the Black Hawk War.

Before practicing law, worked as a bartender, going on to own and operate a general store and restaurant with his law partner.

Was a leader of the Whig party.

Gained a reputation as an honest man of the prairie, who cleared land and used an ax to hew trees into fences and railroad ties (aka a rail-splitter). This reputation earned him the nickname "Honest Abe."

Was elected to the Illinois House of Representatives.

Represented Illinois in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Joined the newly-formed Republican party as a reaction to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, opening new territories to slavery.

Ran for U.S. Senate in 1858, campaigning against incumbent Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. The two debated several times, resulting in what came to be called Lincoln-Douglas style debating. This was the first time debates were covered nationally, thanks to the advent of the telegraph, which allowed news stories to be transmitted to newspapers all over the United States, essentially in real time. While Lincoln lost the Senate race, the debates, which centered on slavery, made him a national figure.

Opposed the Mexican-American War, declaring it an attempt by President Polk to grab military glory.

Won every Northern state in the election of 1860, winning him the presidency, but causing even more Southern states to secede.

He and his wife both suffered from melancholy (now known as depression) throughout their lives, particularly after losing two of their sons. After Lincoln's death, his wife was committed to an asylum by their remaining son, Robert.

Was a member of the American Colonization Society, which sought to end slavery and resettle freed slaves in the African nation of Liberia.

Achievements as President

Avoided assassins who were waiting for him in Baltimore en route to his inauguration by travelling in disguise.

While himself a moderate, he pleaded directly to the American people and brought together Republicans (mostly the ones calling themselves the Radical Republicans and a significant portion of Democrats (known as the War Democrats) to guide the country through the Civil War.

After the brutal, bloody Battle of Gettysburg, he wrote and delivered one of the most famous speeches in history, the Gettysburg Address (the one that begins, "Four score and seven years ago...").

He worked closely with the military to manage the war, consulting on strategy, selecting generals, and enacting a naval blockade of the South to cut off supplies as much as possible.

Avoided war with Great Britain, which was officially neutral in the war, after an American naval ship intercepted a British mail ship and arrested two Confederate envoys bound for England and France, with the mission of gaining official recognition of the Confederate States of America. The arrest of the envoys was a problem for the British, but was celebrated by most of America, who favored a war with Britain for support of the South. To avoid a war with the British, Lincoln released the envoys and tensions resolved.

Issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 declaring slaves in the Confederate states to be free. This also instructed the Army and Navy to enforce the proclamation, and to allow former slaves to enlist.

Encouraged the "border states" of Maryland, Kentucky, Delaware, Missouri, and West Virginia, who were technically Southern states, but which supported the Union, to outlaw slavery.

Promoted the 13th Amendment, which officially outlawed slavery. The amendment also outlawed forced labor, except as punishment for a crime. The distinction between the two is slavery is forced labor, but also ownership of a human, while forced labor as part of a punishment can be enforced, but does not involve the trade or ownership of the person.

Managed his successful re-election campaign himself.

Impressed by the military prowess of Ulysses S. Grant, he promoted Grant to the rank of Lieutenant General, a post not held by anyone since George Washington, and which required approval by Congress.

Already seeking to repair the union and reconstruct the South, though the war was not over, Lincoln passed the Amnesty Proclamation in 1863, pardoning Confederates who did not hold office in the Confederate states, as long as they pledged loyalty to the United States.

Signed the Freedman's Bill, creating a temporary agency to help former slaves adjust to freed life, in part by securing land for them, but also educating them and providing other services. This led to the founding of many historically black colleges, but also to the promise (attributed to General Sherman) of "40 acres and a mule."

Created the first national banks.

Under Lincoln's direction, the U.S. issued paper currency for the first time.

While Thanksgiving had been largely a regional holiday in New England, Lincoln promoted it as a national holiday.

Through the Yosemite Grant, provided protection for what became known as Yosemite National Park.

Typically ranked as the greatest American president.

Failures

While he lost several elections before becoming President, and in his own view the Union was losing the Civil War even in the last year, in which he feared he would also lose re-election, during his tenure as President, Lincoln ultimately won.

Controversies

Lincoln supported the Corwin Amendment, which would have protected slavery as a practice in states that already had it, but outlaw it elsewhere. Passage of this Amendment would have prevented civil war, but it did not pass.

While in Congress, Lincoln proposed the Spots Resolutions, a measure that failed in Congress. The Resolutions challenged President Polk to prove that American blood was shed by Mexican cavalry, which was the basis for Polk's urging the country to war, by showing the spots where the blood was shed. This stance lost Lincoln support across the country and his district, and he later regretted making the statements.

Because it was nearly impossible to defend Washington D.C. well enough for Congress to meet safely, Lincoln suspended habeas corpus, in order to more easily arrest and detain those who were a threat. This was unconstitutional, as those powers belong only to Congress. However, Congress passed an Act, signed into law by Lincoln, which granted him temporary powers to do so, and these powers were formally negated by President Andrew Johnson during his term after the conclusion of the war.

The Emancipation Proclamation technically only applied to slaves in the 10 Confederate states, not the Union states. In a letter to newspaperman Horace Greeley, Lincoln said that while he personally opposed slavery, his chief role was to preserve the union, which he sought to do by freeing some slaves, not others. In order to maintain support of the northern states, he did not want to take action that would upset voters or politicians in those areas.

While promoting Ulysses S. Grant to the rank of Lieutenant General, Lincoln only did so after confirming that Grant would not run against him when Lincoln sought re-election.

While the Civil War was going on, in 1862, the Dakota War broke out with the Dakota Indians in Minnesota. Initially, Lincoln tried to send thousands of Confederate POWs to fight the Indians, thus sparing Union troops, but they refused to fight the Dakotas on behalf of the Union. Lincoln instead worked with the Chippewa to fight the Dakotas, with U.S. military command and rules of engagement.

While some factions of Congress supported harsh treatment of the South before, during, and after the war, Lincoln favored being more moderate, forgiving, and welcoming in order to heal the country.

While Lincoln was able to pass legislation providing inexpensive western land for purchase, establishing agricultural colleges to train new farmers, and funding for what became the transcontinental railroad, he was only able to do so because Southern congressmen, who had previously opposed such measures, were no longer in Congress.

To raise funds for the war, Lincoln instituted the first federal income tax (3%).

Because two New York newspapers were circulating false rumors of a new military draft, for their own benefit, Lincoln used the military to take control of the newspapers for two days.

Some scholars, such as Lerone Bennet, Jr., have noted that while Lincoln opposed slavery and ultimately freed the slaves, he also held white supremacist views ,told racist jokes, and sought to send former slaves, their descendants, and other African-Americans back to Africa.

Next: Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant