The Good, The Bad, and the Ugly of American Presidents: Part 15

All too often, American presidents are generalized. This one was good, this one was bad, or all of them were bad before or after this point. In reality, each President has positive or negative aspects that may be frequently overlooked. Sometimes what seemed good at the time is not so good in retrospect, or what was controversial would be accepted today. In this series, we'll look at the highlights of each President from the founding of America to today.

In Part 14, we looked at the presidencies of Herbert Hoover and Franklin Delano Roosevelt We now continue with two more presidents, Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower.

33. Harry S. Truman (in office April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1953)

Lacking funds for college, he applied for the U.S. Military Training Academy at West Point, which was tuition free. He was rejected due to poor eyesight, being legally blind in one eye.

Enlisted in the National Guard, applying twice. He was rejected after his first physical due to his poor eyesight, but was enlisted after a second physical, which he passed because he secretly memorized the eye exam chart.

Fought in France in World War One, becoming known for effective leadership and rising to the rank of captain. He remained in the Officers Reserve Corps after the war, eventually attaining the rank of colonel.

Opened a men's clothing store upon returning from the war.

Elected county judge.

Elected U.S. Senator from Missouri, where from 1940-44 he headed the Truman Committee, a senatorial committee designed to eliminate waste and abuse in wartime governmental contracts. It's estimated the committee saved the government as much as $15 billion ($260 billion in current dollars).

Elected Vice President in 1944, under Franklin Delano Roosevelt.

Became President upon Roosevelt's death in 1945.

Was virtually destitute post-presidency because he was not wealthy before politics, and there was not yet a pension for ex-presidents. Such a pension was passed, and he and former president Hoover accepted it. Hoover didn't need it, and it's assumed he accepted it to save Truman from the embarrassment of needing it.

Achievements as President

The last president to not have a college degree. The last one previous to him was William McKinley. He did take some courses, and had sufficient education to serve as a judge, but never had a degree.

Implemented the Marshall Plan to rebuild Western Europe in the wake of WWII.

Replaced Roosevelt staff with people he trusted and filled out the White House staff, which was understaffed despite the increased size of the government.

Acted as his own Chief of Staff, and interacted with Congress directly, rather than through a liaison.

Created the President's Committee on Civil Rights, and was the first President to address the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), stating discrimination had to end.

Using an executive order, ended racial discrimination in the military.

With his second inauguration, became the first President to have a televised inauguration.

Signed the Housing Act of 1949 into law, expanding the role of the federal government in mortgage insurance, and increasing construction of public housing.

In his 1948 bid for reelection, narrowly defeated Republican Thomas Dewey in a surprise victory, resulting in the famous picture in which Truman is holding a newspaper with the headline "Dewey Beats Truman!". The paper already printed the story because Dewey's victory seemed certain.

Oversaw the Berlin Airlift, a joint operation in which British and American planes flew more than 250,000 times over Berlin to drop needed food and supplies to Germans under Soviet control

Because the White House was deteriorating to the point of being found unsafe, Truman and his family relocated across the street to a building known as Blair House while the White House was given a vast overhaul. He walked across the street each day to work in the Oval Office and West Wing, which were found to be safe.

Appointed William H. Hastie to the Court of Appeals, making him the first African-American federal judge in the U.S.

Issued an executive order making it illegal to discriminate against hiring a person for a civil service position based on race, and another staring government contractors could not discriminate based on race.

Failures

Popularity dropped sharply from 82% in January 1946 to 52 percent in June. This led to Democrats losing heavily in the mid-term elections, losing control of Congress for the first time since 1930. As Truman's popularity continued to drop, reaching 32 percent, Democratic Senator William Fulbright of Arkansas suggested Truman should resign. Truman refused.

Tried to enact multiple New Deal domestic policy reforms in line with what his predecessor, Franklin Roosevelt did, but was repeatedly stopped by the conservative coalition in Congress. This included two bills that were passed, overriding his veto.

While a Democratic majority returned to Congress in 1948, Truman still struggled to pass legislation, with programs such as civil rights legislation and national health insurance being defeated.

Didn't know how to handle the civil war between Nationalists and Communists in China. Though he sent General George Marshall to China, where he stayed a year, trying to negotiate between the factions, the Communists ultimately won, taking over China and creating a new enemy in Asia where there had been an ally during WWII.

At the outset of the Korean War, when the North Korean army invaded South Korea, Truman wanted to send a naval blockade to the area in response but learned it was impossible due to budget cutbacks.

At the end of the Korean War, with 30,000 American troops dead and the war at a stalemate, Truman's approval rating reached an all-time low of 22 percent, the lowest of any sitting President, later to only be matched by Richard Nixon in 1974.

Presented Congress with a 10 point list of items he wanted to see covered in a civil rights bill. They were never implemented, and no bill was passed in his term.

Truman instructed the Secretary of Commerce to take control of a number of steel mills during labor disputes at the mills citing he had the authority as Commander in Chief to protect the supply of steel, due to the Korean War. In a split decision, the Supreme Court found his action unconstitutional. This defeat was devastating, since all of the justices on the court were nominated by Roosevelt or Truman himself.

Because the Constitutional Amendment limiting presidents to two full terms did not apply to Truman (he was grandfathered in while it was pending), he considered running for another term, though his poll numbers were weak and his advisors urged against it. Still, he allowed his name to be placed in the New Hampshire Democratic primary in 1952 and he was defeated so soundly he shortly thereafter said he was not seeking reelection.

Controversies

Is known to have made many racist comments, beyond what was even the norm at that time, indicating that he believed other races were inferior. One particularly offensive comment, noted in Oliver Stone's "Untold History of the United States" and quoted from a letter he wrote in 1911 was, "I think one man is just as good as another so long as he's honest and decent and not a nigger or a Chinaman. Uncle Wills says that the Lord made a white man from dust, a nigger from mud, and then threw what was left and it came down a Chinaman. He does hate Chinese and Japs. So do I. It is race prejudice I guess. But I am strongly of the opinion that negroes ought to be in Africa, yellow men in Asia, and white men in Europe and America."

As a senator, opposed both Communist Russia and Nazi Germany. When Germany invaded Russia in 1941, he said: "If we see that Germany is winning we ought to help Russia, and if Russia is winning we ought to help Germany, and that way let them kill as many as possible although I don't want to see Hitler victorious under any circumstances." This statement was later used by Soviet Russia to show that America had long been conspiring to destroy Russia.

Gave the order to drop atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima. This brought the world into the Atomic Age, and to date has been the only time atomic or nuclear weapons have been used by a nation in combat.

Was staunchly anti-isolationist, which greatly influenced his policy known as the Truman Doctrine. While the Monroe Doctrine established that the United States would take action against perceived threats in the Western hemisphere (used mainly to stop the spread of European colonialism in North and South America), the Truman Doctrine stated that the United States would act anywhere when a nation was threated by tyrannical force. This was meant to counteract the spread of communism around the world, and led to the modern practice of covertly or overtly becoming involved in foreign governmental affairs, such as the Korean and Vietnam wars.

Because restarting the European economy and rebuilding Europe after WWII would be monumentally costly, tripling the American military budget, Truman projected the ideology that led to the Cold War, stating that communism arises in poor economies. To help combat the Cold War and negotiate the world of modern warfare, he officially created the Air Force as a separate military branch, merged the Department of War and Department of the Navy (later christened the Department of Defense), and created the CIA, the National Security Council, and the National Security Agency.

Was uncomfortable around the press, seeing them as enemies who were waiting to capitalize on his mistakes, and he had a hard time managing his temper around them. His tendency to work to the point of exhaustion made his temper worse, which worked in his favor, with reporters saying, "Give 'em hell, Harry!"

His preferred pastimes were playing poker, telling stories, and sipping bourbon, which were deemed by some to be too informal and unpresidential.

In 1946, multiple railroad unions threatened to strike. Truman negotiated with several, but two held out, shutting down railroad traffic across the country. Truman proposed drafting railroad workers who refused to work and a bill was introduced in Congress, but defeated. At the same time, the two striking unions agreed to Truman's terms and returned to work.

In 1948, recognized Israel as a nation 11 minutes after it declared itself as such. This was despite warnings from some of his most trusted advisors who said recognizing Israel would cost the U.S. the support of Arab nations the U.S. depended upon for oil, and this loss would be particularly costly in the event of another war. Truman went ahead with his pro-Israeli stance, stating he didn't think Palestinians were a very large part of his voting base.

When the Soviets successfully tested their own atomic bomb, Truman approved plans for the U.S. to develop the new, more powerful hydrogen bomb, in order to stay ahead of the Soviets in the Arms Race.

After urging the United Nations to send troops to intervene in the Korean War, Truman sent American troops to support the effort, led by General Douglas MacArthur. He didn't request permission from Congress or ask for a declaration of war, he just assumed most legislators would back the measure, and he feared formal declarations would incite the Chinese and Soviets.

While General MacArthur had been very successful leading the Korean War, driving back the North Koreans and intending to enter into China (who was backing North Korea) to destroy Chinese military operations, Truman ordered MacArthur to stop, and went so far as to travel to see MacArthur in person and order him to stand down. The issue wasn't the outcome of the war so much as Truman wanting to assert dominance as Commander in Chief. MacArthur's removal was one of the least popular decisions in presidential history, resulting in plummeting approval and calls for impeachment.

Signed the agreement entering the United States into NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization), establishing General Dwight D. Eisenhower as a commander.

When a former Soviet spy testified before Congress that spies had infiltrated the American government, 78% of Americans thought it to be true. To help stifle concerns, Truman issued an executive order establishing a loyalty program, meant to investigate unAmerican activities and beliefs and instill confidence in his foreign policies. This fueled the anticommunist beliefs of Senator Joe McCarthy of Wisconsin, who also alleged there were communist and/or Soviet Spies in America, leading to a "red scare." Truman denounced McCarthy, stating he was a more divisive and destructive force than the Soviets themselves.

In 1950, the Senate began investigating numerous charges of corruption in the Truman administration, with typical allegations stating the deliverence of gifts such as fur coats and refrigerators to officials in expectation of favors. A large number of the Internal Revenue Board (now the IRS) were found to be accepting bribes and were either fired or forced to quit. The Attorney General fired the special prosecutor in charge of the investigation, which prompted Truman to fire the Attorney General. This made corruption a key issue in the 1952 election.

34. Dwight D. Eisenhower (in office January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961)

Born in Texas, raised in Kansas in a deeply religious family.

Graduated from United States Military Academy, aka West Point.

Served in World War One, commanding a tank crew.

Continued serving in the Army after WWI, working in the U.S. and the Philippines, achieving the rank of brigadier general shortly before the start of WWII.

Achieved the rank of 5-star general and General of the Army, establishing him as the top-ranking commander of the U.S. Army.

Was Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces during WWII, planning two of the key operations of the war, Operation Torch in North Africa and the Invasion of Normandy.

After WWII, served as military governor of American-occupied Germany, Army Chief of Staff, first supreme commander of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), and president of Columbia University.

Declared no party affiliation, and refused nomination as a candidate for the 1948 presidential election.

Ran for president as a Republican in 1952, to block the isolationist Republican candidate, Senator Robert A. Taft.

Nicknamed "Ike," leading to the campaign slogan, "I like Ike."

Defeated Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson in a landslide, running on a campaign of containing the spread of communism and reducing the federal deficit. Eisenhower was the first Republican to be elected President in 20 years.

An avid golfer, he played frequently before, during, and after his presidency, even playing in winter, when he used black golf balls that could be seen in the snow.

Began painting after WWII and continued painting for the rest of his life. Seeing his paintings, which were typically portraits and landscapes, some believed they reflected a hidden depth of character.

Had an excellent memory and was known for his ability to focus.

Loved reading, particularly westerns, and was an enthusiastic and skilled card player, particularly poker and bridge. It was said that the ability to play bridge was an unspoken qualification for military advancement under Eisenhower, or for staff positions in his White House.

Resigned his position of General of the Army when he campaigned for President, but Congress restored him to the post after his term as President was completed.

Achievements as President

Last President to be born before 1900.

At age 62, was the oldest elected president since James Buchanan in 1856.

Third commanding general of the Army to be elected, following Ulysses S. Grant and George Washington.

Held no political office before being elected President, something not repeated by any President until Donald Trump was elected in 2016.

Effectively ended the Korean War, reaching an armistice in 1953. He considered using nuclear weapons against China if they did not reach an armistice quickly.

To save money, he opted to create more "inexpensive" nuclear weapons rather than invest in military divisions.

Recognized Taiwan as the legitimate government of China.

Governed as a moderate conservative who maintained Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" agencies while expanding Social Security.

While against communism himself, opposed Senator Joe McCarthy's efforts to identify and oust communist elements in the federal government and America in general, bringing an end to McCarthyism.

Renamed the Presidential Retreat in Maryland, which Franklin Roosevelt called "Shangri-La", "Camp David" after his father and grandson.

Signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957.

Sent Army troops to enforce school integration in Little Rock, Arkansas.

Oversaw the development and construction of the Interstate Highway System, the largest roadway construction in American history.

Responded to the Soviet launching of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, by creating NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) and establishing more science-based education through the National Defense Education Act.

Successfully ran for reelection in 1956, once again defeating Democrat Adlai Stevenson in a landslide.

His terms were known for unprecedented economic prosperity, which are often depicted as an ideal age of American history.

Held almost 200 press conferences during his two terms, more than any previous president.

Combined the Roosevelt-era programs into a new Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, and expanded their reach to include 10 million more people.

Implemented racial integration in the military, an effort started by Truman, in two years.

Appointed 5 justices to the Supreme Court.

Successfully admitted two states, Alaska and Hawaii, to the union.

Was the first president to openly disclose his medical records.

After suffering a stroke while in office, actually during a meeting, Eisenhower finally quit smoking.

In his often-quoted farewell speech before leaving office, he warned against deficit spending and the machinations and deep influence of "the military-industrial complex." Both these warning would prove to be very accurate, reverberating to this day.

Failures

Near the end of his term, a U.S. U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union, leading to the cancelling of a planned summit with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev and drastically increased tensions.

Approved the "Bay of Pigs" invasion of Cuba, which was left to incoming President John F. Kennedy to carry out. The operation was a devastating failure.

A longtime heavy smoker throughout his life, often smoking 3-4 packs a day, he developed a heart condition, then tried and failed to quit cold turkey, suffering a heart attack in his first term and a stroke in his second term.

Controversies

Was ambivalent and noncommittal about a running mate, so he let the party decide. Republicans unanimously selected Senator Richard Nixon of California.

While he opposed Senator McCarthy's "red scare" hunt for communists in government, he supported McCarthy's simultaneous search for homosexuals in government, adding to a "lavender scare" through the issuing of an executive order instructing government employees to be investigated, and if found to be homosexual, fired. Under the same order, applicants to government positions were to be investigated and blocked from positions if they were gay, lesbian, or bisexual.

Provided aid to France's military efforts in Viet Nam.

Provided strong financial support to the new nation of South Viet Nam.

Supported regime-changing coups in Iran and Guatemala.

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, condemned the French/British/Israeli invasion of Egypt, forcing them to withdraw.

Condemned the Soviet Invasion of Hungary in 1956 but took no action.

Sent 15,000 troops to aid Lebanon in 1958.

Is known to have been as conservative about art as politics, vocally opposed to modern art of the time.

It was alleged that Vice-President Nixon improperly received funds from a secret trust. Nixon denied the charges and spoke out against them, but the matter divided Nixon and the president, as did Eisenhauer's decision to speak out against Senator McCarthy in his home state of Wisconsin, against Nixon's advice.

While he disclosed his health records while in office, those records were deliberately falsified, glossing over his heart condition.

Supported Vice-President Nixon as the Republican candidate for president in 1960, but only because he was strongly opposed to Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy. Despite campaigning for Nixon, when asked if he had ever used any of Nixon's ideas during his time in office, Eisenhauer said he couldn't think of any, but might if he was given a week.

Next: John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson