A Nation Divided by Conflict

Introduction

Sudan, once the largest country in Africa by landmass, has endured one of the most protracted and devastating series of civil wars in modern history. The Sudanese civil conflict is not a single war, but rather a chain of interconnected struggles involving deep-rooted ethnic, religious, political, and economic divisions that date back to colonial rule and beyond. These wars have shaped not just the political geography of the region but the lives of millions—through displacement, violence, famine, and loss.

The conflict primarily revolves around the complex relationship between the Arab-Muslim North and the African-Christian and animist South. These identities, while not always rigid, have been used politically to divide the country, especially during colonial administration. These divisions deepened post-independence as successive governments in Khartoum marginalized the South, enforcing policies that suppressed cultural, religious, and linguistic diversity.

This documentary will explore the origins and evolution of the Sudanese Civil War, examining key events such as the First and Second Civil Wars, the Darfur conflict, and the 2018 revolution that toppled a decades-long dictatorship. It will also analyze international involvement, humanitarian crises, and the ultimate secession of South Sudan. With additional focus on the civil war in South Sudan itself and ongoing instability in the North, we aim to understand the persistent challenges facing both nations today.

Historical Background and Roots of Conflict

Colonial Rule and Artificial Unity

Sudan's modern history began under colonial occupation. From 1899 until 1956, Sudan was ruled by the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, a joint administration of the British and the Egyptians. Though technically unified, Sudan was treated as two distinct regions under this rule. The North was administered more directly and allowed to integrate into Arab-Islamic cultural and economic systems. In contrast, the South—inhabited by diverse African ethnic groups—was administered as a closed district, largely neglected and isolated.

The British pursued a policy known as the "Southern Policy," which discouraged interaction between North and South Sudan. English and local languages were used in the South, Christian missionaries provided education and health care, and Islamic law was not implemented. However, in the late colonial period, the British began a rapid unification process without adequately preparing the South for integration with the North. When the British abruptly departed in 1956, they left behind a nation deeply divided along ethnic, religious, and linguistic lines.

Post-Independence Marginalization

At independence in 1956, Sudan’s government was dominated by Northern Arab-Muslim elites. The government quickly declared Arabic the official language and Islam the state religion. This unilateral imposition marginalized the South, where people practiced Christianity or indigenous religions and spoke African languages. The South was excluded from key political and military positions, and their concerns were ignored in national governance.

Tensions erupted almost immediately. Southern leaders called for a federal system or outright autonomy, but Khartoum rejected such demands. This simmering discontent boiled over into full-scale conflict within months of independence, setting the stage for the First Sudanese Civil War.

The First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972)

Origins of the First War

Even before Sudan officially gained independence, violence had already begun. In 1955, the Equatoria Corps—composed mainly of Southern soldiers—mutinied in the town of Torit. They feared domination by Northern officers and the erosion of Southern identity. This mutiny marked the unofficial start of the First Sudanese Civil War.

The Southern rebellion coalesced into the Anya Nya movement, a guerrilla army that fought for Southern autonomy, equal rights, and protection of cultural identity. The Northern government responded with brutal counterinsurgency measures. Villages were burned, civilians targeted, and entire communities displaced. The war dragged on for nearly two decades with intermittent peace talks and failed ceasefires.

Addis Ababa Agreement (1972)

The war finally came to an end with the signing of the Addis Ababa Agreement in 1972. Brokered by the World Council of Churches and other religious organizations, the agreement granted significant autonomy to the South, including its own regional government and armed forces. It also recognized cultural and religious diversity.

Though the peace was widely welcomed, it was fragile. Many Southerners viewed it as a stop-gap solution that left core issues—like fair resource distribution and genuine political inclusion—unresolved. Tensions simmered beneath the surface, and when the government of President Jaafar Nimeiry sought to undermine Southern autonomy in the early 1980s, the country slid back into war.

The Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005)

A New Rebellion

In 1983, President Nimeiry unilaterally nullified key aspects of the Addis Ababa Agreement. He dissolved the Southern regional government and imposed Islamic Sharia law across the entire country. These moves were seen as a betrayal in the South and ignited widespread rebellion.

The Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A), led by Dr. John Garang, emerged as the dominant rebel force. Unlike the purely secessionist Anya Nya, the SPLM/A initially fought for a "New Sudan"—a secular, inclusive state that respected diversity and equitable development.

War and Atrocities

The war was even more brutal than the first. Over two million people were killed, and more than four million were displaced internally or as refugees. Government-aligned militias, including the notorious Janjaweed, were unleashed on Southern villages, burning homes, raping women, and forcibly recruiting children as soldiers.

The conflict also turned economic. Oil was discovered in the South, and both sides fought bitterly for control. The Sudanese government partnered with foreign oil companies and used oil revenue to fund military operations. Southern communities were forcibly displaced to clear areas for oil drilling, deepening the humanitarian crisis.

Famine and International Outcry

The war led to recurring famines, most notably in 1998, when tens of thousands died. Aid organizations faced immense challenges accessing conflict zones. The international community began to take greater notice, especially in the West. Faith-based groups in the U.S. became vocal advocates for the Southern cause, framing the conflict in terms of religious persecution.

International Involvement and Humanitarian Crisis

Regional Players

The conflict spilled across borders. Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda supported the SPLM/A to varying degrees, either for ideological reasons or as a counterbalance to Sudanese support for rebel groups in their own countries. Libya and Iran supplied the Sudanese government with arms, while China emerged as a major economic player, investing in oil infrastructure in exchange for access to resources.

Humanitarian Catastrophe

The Second Civil War created one of the world’s worst humanitarian disasters. Entire villages were razed, agricultural lands abandoned, and infrastructure destroyed. Internally displaced persons (IDPs) crowded into makeshift camps, often lacking clean water, food, and medical supplies. Malnutrition and disease were rampant.

International aid groups like the UN, Médecins Sans Frontières, and the Red Cross operated under extreme conditions. Relief corridors were negotiated but frequently violated. Civilians became pawns in a political game, caught between warring factions and blocked from life-saving aid.

Global Pressure for Peace

Amid growing global awareness, the U.S., Norway, and the UK applied diplomatic pressure. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), a regional bloc, initiated formal peace talks. Years of negotiations culminated in the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), a landmark deal intended to end decades of war.

The Comprehensive Peace Agreement and South Sudan’s Independence (2005–2011)

The Road to Peace

After decades of war and millions of lives lost, both the Sudanese government and the SPLM/A faced immense international and internal pressure to reach a settlement. Exhaustion from war, coupled with shifting global alliances and economic concerns—especially regarding oil—motivated both parties to seriously negotiate peace.

On January 9, 2005, the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed in Nairobi, Kenya. It was a monumental achievement, brokered by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) with support from the U.S., Norway, and the United Kingdom.

Key Provisions of the CPA

The CPA outlined a framework for a new political order in Sudan:

• Power Sharing: A Government of National Unity would be created, with positions for both Northern and Southern leaders.

• Wealth Sharing: Oil revenue—particularly critical, as most oil reserves were in the South—would be split 50/50 between the national government and the Southern Sudanese administration.

• Security Arrangements: Separate armies would remain for the North and South, with a joint integrated unit serving as a symbol of unity.

Autonomy and Referendum: Southern Sudan would gain autonomy for six years, after which a referendum would allow Southerners to choose between remaining in Sudan or becoming independent.

The 2011 Referendum and Birth of a New Nation

In January 2011, Southern Sudanese participated in a historic referendum on independence. Over 98% voted in favor of secession. On July 9, 2011, South Sudan became the world’s newest country. The day was marked with celebrations in Juba, the new capital, and around the world.

But while independence brought hope, it also introduced a new set of challenges. Many critical issues were unresolved:

Border Disputes: Areas like Abyei, Southern Kordofan, and Blue Nile remained contested and militarized.

Oil Transit Fees: Although most oil was in South Sudan, pipelines ran through the North. Disagreements over transit fees led to shutdowns that crippled both economies.

Citizenship and Rights: Thousands of Southerners in the North—and Northerners in the South—faced uncertainty regarding legal status and protection.

The optimism of independence was quickly overshadowed by logistical chaos, continued violence in border areas, and looming internal divisions within South Sudan itself.

The Darfur Conflict and Continued Instability

The Forgotten Region Erupts

While the CPA addressed the North-South conflict, it ignored other marginalized areas. One of the most devastating oversights was the western region of Darfur. In 2003, long-simmering tensions in Darfur exploded into open conflict when two rebel groups—the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)—launched attacks, accusing the government of discrimination and neglect.

In response, the Sudanese government armed and mobilized Arab militias known as the Janjaweed. These militias carried out a scorched-earth campaign: burning villages, raping women, murdering civilians, and displacing entire communities. By 2005, the conflict had killed over 300,000 people (according to UN estimates) and displaced more than 2.5 million.

International Reaction and War Crimes

The brutality of the Darfur conflict caught global attention. Western governments, especially the United States, declared the violence a genocide. In 2009, the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued an arrest warrant for Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir on charges of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. He became the first sitting head of state to be indicted by the ICC.

While symbolic, the indictment did little to change the situation on the ground. Al-Bashir remained in power, defying international travel bans and continuing to receive diplomatic recognition in much of Africa and the Middle East.

Other Flashpoints: Blue Nile and Nuba Mountains

The conflict in Darfur was mirrored by smaller uprisings in other peripheral regions. In Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile, communities allied with the SPLM/A were targeted by government forces even after the CPA. The Nuba Mountains, in particular, became a war zone, with civilians trapped in caves to escape aerial bombings. These conflicts highlighted the Khartoum government's continued reliance on military force to silence dissent.

Revolution and the Fall of Bashir (2018–2019)

The Spark: Bread and Fuel Shortages

In late 2018, the cost of living in Sudan soared. Bread and fuel subsidies were cut, triggering price hikes that hit the poorest hardest. Protests broke out in the city of Atbara and quickly spread to the capital, Khartoum, and beyond. What began as economic discontent soon evolved into a broader political movement calling for an end to President Bashir’s three-decade rule.

Young Sudanese—many of whom had grown up in war and hardship—led the charge. Women, students, and professionals flooded the streets. Slogans like “Freedom, Peace, and Justice” became rallying cries.

Mass Mobilization and Military Intervention

As protests intensified, security forces cracked down with live ammunition and tear gas. Hundreds were killed, but the protests continued. In April 2019, under pressure from within and abroad, the military removed Bashir from power and placed him under arrest.

A Transitional Military Council (TMC) took control, but protesters demanded a civilian-led government. After months of negotiations—and a brutal massacre of protesters at a sit-in in June 2019—an agreement was finally reached.

A Fragile Civilian-Military Partnership

In August 2019, a power-sharing agreement created a Sovereign Council, composed of military and civilian leaders, tasked with guiding the country toward elections in 2022. A renowned economist, Dr. Abdalla Hamdok, was appointed Prime Minister.

This moment marked a fragile but hopeful turning point. Many believed Sudan was finally on the path to democracy. However, underlying tensions between military and civilian factions remained unresolved, setting the stage for more upheaval.

Renewed Conflict and the Future of Sudan

The 2021 Coup

In October 2021, just as the civilian government began asserting more authority, the military launched a coup, detaining Prime Minister Hamdok and dissolving the Sovereign Council. Once again, the democratic transition was derailed.

Mass protests returned to the streets. The military responded with violence, killing dozens and injuring many more. International condemnation followed, but global attention—divided by other crises—was limited.

Economic and Humanitarian Collapse

The coup deepened Sudan’s economic woes. Foreign aid was suspended, inflation skyrocketed, and the Sudanese pound collapsed. Essential services like healthcare, education, and electricity became inaccessible for millions. Meanwhile, ongoing violence in Darfur, Blue Nile, and South Kordofan continued to claim lives.

By 2023, UN agencies estimated that over 15 million Sudanese faced acute food insecurity. Refugees fled to neighboring countries, while others remained trapped in displacement camps.

A Glimmer of Hope Amid Chaos?

Despite the turmoil, grassroots organizations, professional unions, and youth-led resistance committees continued to demand civilian rule. Regional bodies and global powers renewed diplomatic efforts. Peace talks were attempted, but without meaningful reforms or justice for past atrocities, lasting peace remained elusive.

Sudan’s future hangs in the balance—caught between the legacy of dictatorship, regional instability, and the unyielding spirit of its people.

Conclusion

The Sudan Civil War is not just a chronicle of battles and political shifts—it is the story of a nation grappling with its identity, sovereignty, and future. From the colonial divide between North and South, through decades of marginalization, warfare, and repression, to the hopeful (and then shattered) dreams of democracy, Sudan’s path has been arduous and complex.

Yet amid war and suffering, the resilience of the Sudanese people shines through. The peaceful revolution of 2018, the birth of South Sudan, and the continued calls for justice show that even the most battered societies can still imagine—and strive for—a better future.

Peace in Sudan will not come through deals among elites alone. It requires inclusive governance, economic equity, cultural recognition, and justice for the victims of war. The lessons of Sudan echo far beyond its borders: where diversity is repressed, and where power is centralized and unaccountable, conflict festers.

The struggle is far from over. But understanding Sudan’s history is a crucial step in rewriting its future.

Here is a condensed 800-word version of your documentary on the Sudan Civil War, preserving the key details and narrative flow:

Sudan Civil War: A Struggle for Unity, Identity, and Peace

Colonial Legacy and Early Divisions