How the Earth Was Made: The Most DANGEROUS Geological Mysteries *Epic Marathon*

Soil a 4.5 billion year ancient Planet

still advancing

as landmasses move and Clash

volcanoes emit and Icy masses develop and

subside the Earth's outside is carved in

various and intriguing ways driving a

path of topographical Riddles behind

[Music]

in this scene an examination into

California's San Andreas Blame

most prominent blame line on Soil

800 miles long this revolting scar on the

scene has brought forth seismic tremor after

seismic tremor

but for presently it holds up unobtrusively profound beneath

our cities

building up stretch to strike once once more

[Music]

San Andreas blame is one of the foremost

unsafe topographical highlights

on Soil

[Music]

California's most noteworthy cities and

millions of her citizens live in

consistent risk

since records started there have been 13

expansive seismic tremors along the San Andreas

Blame

[Music]

and presently America's geologists her Shake

criminologists a caution of a potential

catastrophe

harm has been done

within the drop of 2008 more than 300

researchers calculated what a major

seismic tremor would do to Southern

California

we've been conducting a extraordinary ponder of

a size 7.8 seismic tremor on the

southern San Andreas blame huge sufficient

to possibly harm tall buildings

firecracker will be exceptionally critical

the conclusive logical report

displayed to lawmakers was code named

ShakeOut

figure thousands of passings and

billions of dollars of harm within the

city of Los Angeles

which makes it crucial to explore

the foremost vital address

when will the following huge seismic tremor hit

the San Andreas Blame

the most recent arrangements for disaster are

the climax of an examination that

started more than 100 a long time back

within the consequence of the incredible San

Francisco seismic tremor of 1906.

the seismic tremor struck on a Wednesday

Fair Some time recently First light

the ground shook savagely for 45

seconds lighting fires that seethed

unchecked for the next four days

28 000 buildings a tenth of the whole

city were devastated and more than three

thousand individuals one in each hundred of

the populace were slaughtered with a

size of 7.8 it's within the best 20 of

North America's most grounded ever

seismic tremors

the scale of the incredible San Francisco

seismic tremor stunned the country

but no one caught on what had made the

city Shake

outside

Local American myths clarified

seismic tremors as stuns from a fight

between warring spirits

Latter-Day pioneers couldn't get it

the stuns that devastated their mission

buildings

one Spanish evangelist composed

the Soil shook around me from

blasts beneath the ground

300 a long time afterward and science has still

made little advance displaced people within the

ruins of San Francisco still blamed

seismic tremors on secretive underground

blasts

so fair three days after the seismic tremor

the state of California inquired one of the

world's most popular geologists Andrew

Lawson from California State College

to explore what had annihilated the

city

he and a team of 25 researchers started

collecting damage evidence in the City

and encompassing Wide open

there were streets that had buckled

rail tracks that had bent

the foremost startling prove of all

that came close the town of Bolinas in

Marin Province to the North of San

Francisco

this picket fence had an eight-foot Hole

within the center

some time recently the seismic tremor it was a strong

boundary fence isolating two areas

but when he reproduced what had happened

Lawson realized that the arrive had jolted

separated and torn the fence in two

plotting the prove on a outline around

San Francisco uncovered a shocking

design

since interfacing the dabs drew a

straight line

and at each point the Soil moved the

same way on the coast to the north

Inland to the South

this line of shortcoming was the offender

they were looking for

South of San Francisco the suspect line

ran underneath a lake the Laguna De San

Andreas

so presently the seismic tremor culprit at

final had a title

Teacher Lawson who a decade prior

had distinguished breaks within the soil here

as a safe Crack presently re-christened it

the San Andreas Blame

in cutting edge day San Francisco the

buildings the streets and the railroads

have long since been repaired

but in case you know where to see prove

of the 1906 Tremor can still be found

geologist Charlie Paul takes after within the

strides of Lawson's group looking for signs

of the Destruction from 1906.

he finds it on the Cliffs at muscle Shake

12 miles south of San Francisco

the cliff isn't here by mischance

there's an awfully great reason why this

Cliff is here half a mile or so of the

shore confront clearly fell off in the

1906 earthquake and in case you see down

underneath us there's a enormous turned square

that's close the display day Shoreline

and it is fair in Board of the San

Andreas blame the San Andreas blame is

approximately a quarter of a mile seaward here

and of course that's one of the major

crustal Junctions on this side of North

America

thank you

cutting edge computers can now Follow how

harm waves spread out over the city

and that pinpoints where the Tremor

started along the San Andreas

[Music]

it was seaward almost two miles out to

ocean from the Brilliant Entryway Bridge

so to continue following the blame the

examination must head out to ocean

Marine geologists utilize inaccessible working

Vehicles numerous submarines to outline the ocean

floor

what you'd see is unobtrusive variations in

the geography or geography that would

not naturally line up

so there might be a line on the sea

floor that's higher or lower on one

side and you'll be able use various techniques

to determine that this actually may be a

blame rather than a few other handle

running South over the seabed the San

Andreas at last runs out of sea and

hits the arrive

this broken line of rocks extending in

from the sea marks where the San Andreas

hits arrive 12 miles south of San

Francisco

muscle Shake and we're essentially

standing on the San Andreas blame right

presently and in the event that there was an seismic tremor I

do not know it would happen right here

but I wouldn't need to be here

this Pacific Coastline where Cliffs

disintegrate gradually into the ocean is the

boundary between two of the Earth's

enormous continental plates

isolated by the San Andreas blame two

vast partitioned squares of the Earth's

outside lie specifically nearby each other

here the landmass of North America lies

somewhat on top of the adjoining area

of outside which holds the Pacific Sea

the connect can be seen where these lower

darker rocks are overlaid by

light-colored sedimentary rocks

these rock types differ by by more than

100 million years in Age Two Rock bodies

that are not similar in any way have

been brought together

the blame line was uncovered to geologists

when the cliffs collapsed here within the

1906 seismic tremor

but back at that point no one caught on how and

why the two distinctive sorts of shake were

another to each other

until around 40 a long time ago when the

reply was at long last uncovered by the

hypothesis of plate tectonics

[Music]

the hypothesis appeared that the Earth's outside

comprises of isolated moving plates on

which the seas and landmasses sit

[Music]

around 200 million a long time back the overwhelming

Pacific sea plate collided with North

America and begun sinking underneath

the lighter landmass

[Music]

teacher of geophysics Stamp zobach

considers that prepare called subduction

in his research facility at Stanford College

for numerous millions of a long time earlier to the

presence of the San Andreas fault the

Pacific Plate was subducting underneath

North America the oceanic plate was

jumping down which process went on for

well well over a hundred million years

so a tremendous amount of activity was

happening as the Relentless drive of one plate

met the undaunted protest of the other

they were constrained to alter course

almost 20 million a long time prior the play

movements were such that the Pacific Plate

had to begin sliding North with regard

to North America and presently you know that

the foremost movement is this sliding

handle between the two plates and 20

million a long time prior the San Andreas blame

was born it was the moving put that

smashed distinctive sorts of shake together

fair as here at mussel Shake

at final the examination knows what it

is managing with

the San Andreas blame is 800 miles long

rising from the seabed north of Point

Field in Northern California and running

down to the Salton Ocean within the south

prove is coming together

Clues from the 1906 seismic tremor such as

the picket fence that was torn separated

demonstrate that the arrive was moving

interfacing the specks recognizes the

straight line of the San Andreas Blame

and muscle Shake reveals diverse

plates of the Earth's outside on either

side of the blame line

but agents still require more

data approximately how regularly the San

Andreas has brought forth seismic tremors within the

past

might offer assistance them reply the all-important

address

when will the San Andreas strike once more

to find when the San Andreas blame

will strike again the examination

must know approximately antiquated seismic tremors

that have struck along the blame line

[Music]

but there's an prompt issue so here

in California it's a specific

challenge a few of the most punctual composed

records were from the missions and from

the early pioneers so as it were dating back

into the 18th century here other parts

of the world we have an seismic tremor

history going back centuries

the examination moves 350 miles south

of San Francisco to a leave where the

San Andreas may have been dynamic for

thousands of a long time

there's significant prove here around

seismic tremors from old times

this River utilized to stream straight over

the San Andreas blame here but a few

seismic tremors shaped a Normal Dam where

the San Andreas blame wedges up here in

front of me that made a little lake

and presently we're looking at the dry

dregs of that lake that record the

history of seismic tremors which tells us

very a awesome bargain approximately the past

behavior of the San Andreas Blame

some of the clues are so little that HUD

nuts analyst work gets him down and

Dusty among modest breaks interior the fault

some of the time ready to discover out around the past

behavior of the San Andreas Blame by

looking at the most minor subtle elements

at the foot of this little old Lake

mud dregs collected over a fine

line of Pebbles

at that point an seismic tremor moved the arrive

upwards on one side of the vertical

blame line

so this layer was initially level and

at that point in a consequent seismic tremor it was

broken like this along this modest

fracture strand of the San Andreas blame

but finding verification that this can be the location

of an old seismic tremor is as it were portion of

the story

hudnut has to know how long prior it

happened

the uncovered shake layers are no offer assistance in

dating his find but fair over the

break line of the Rocks he has found

the prove he needs

here a bush was burned by a ancient

fierce blaze which leftover of carbon is

why you see this dark recolor on the side

of the trench divider

the key to opening the age of the

Rocks is carbon 14 known as radiocarbon

its molecular structure implies that

carbon 14 may be a more unsteady isotope

than other shapes of carbon it's retained

by developing plants at that point radioactively

rots at a known rate after the plant

passes on so measuring carbon 14 in

vegetation burned in a fierce blaze uncovers

how long prior those plants kicked the bucket and dates

The Shake in which the carbon is found

and through this able to recreate the

prove of the past seismic tremors

radiocarbon dating has demonstrated that

seismic tremors have been happening along

the line of the San Andreas for

thousands of a long time

the specific little earthquake

explored by hudnut for case is

around three and a half thousand a long time

ancient

it happened at a time when the last

wooly mammoths were biting the dust out in North

America

the examination moves to an indeed more

farther forsake spot the Carrizo plain 160

miles north of Los Angeles here lies a

dried up riverbed which takes an bizarre

course

thank you

coming down off the slopes the rivulet bed

takes a sudden sharp turn to its right

many hundred feet afterward it makes an

similarly odd 90 degree turn to the cleared out

the stream crossed the line of the San

Andreas Blame but early geologists were

confused

why did it Twist in this way

the logical Pioneers were constrained to

considers on the ground

these days hudnut has an advantage he can

take to the discuss

remote

[Music]

where it cuts through the Carrizo plane

it nearly looks like a scar and it was

caused by rehashed seismic tremors in the

past

along the long line of Slopes checking the

course of the San Andreas HUD nut spots

the confusing twists that he's looking for

along the fall through here that would

be amazing goodness there's a awesome point see

that right point counterbalanced Channel with the

elbow in it right there that's a classic

one right there

PUD nuts aerial see of the rivulet bed

appears that the stream once streamed

straight on over the blame

but small by little a arrangement of

seismic tremors along the San Andreas

dragged the creek absent from its unique

course

reproducing how the arrive had moved appeared

hudnut that the two parts of the river

had traveled more than 300 feet separated

so in case you envision the North American

Plate is settled and the Pacific Plate is

moving through the northwest

the Wallace Rivulet location records that

offset because the channel is straight

over the blame but it's been balanced

Through Time

prior investigators had already

radiocarbon dated the arrive on each side

of the faultier uncovering that it took 3

000 a long time to alter the Creek's position

so knowing the separate and the time it

took to do it let's hudnut calculate the

normal speed with which the two arrive

masses are moving past each other

300 feet in three thousand years

[Music]

one foot per decade

fair over an inch a year

but this was never a unfaltering sliding one

inch a year development the reality was a

arrangement of sudden small hops at whatever point

pressure built up enough between the two

moving plates to overcome contact

between the rocks and tear the arrive separated

with an seismic tremor

it's an critical minute for the

examination

knowing how quick the arrive is moving not

as it were reveals the push that's building

up but moreover the hazard of an seismic tremor

the San Andreas blame is giving up its

secrets

Clues from a long dried up Lake uncovered

the locate of old seismic tremors

carbon from a prehistoric fire gives

the dates

Ben's in a riverbed demonstrate how quick the

plates are moving along the San Andreas

but presently the examination features a modern

puzzle to solve

the arrive along the San Andreas is moving

one inch each year causing seismic tremors

at that point why as one little town along the

blame line never had any

[Music]

the investigation has found how

quick the arrive is extending and

straining along each side of the San

Andreas Blame

which should help build up when that

ever increasing stress will snap the

land separated in the following major seismic tremor

but there's a issue

one portion of the blame line fair doesn't

fit the design

the little town of Hollister is special

along the San Andreas fault system

it's never had an seismic tremor

the examination is getting to discover out

why

Hollister encompasses a populace of 37

thousand

nothing here is very the way it ought to

be

there are bounty of Clues recommending

that the arrive must be moving here

thank you

sidewalks with splits in

control Stones way out of line

and dividers that are bowed out of shape

strolling through the Hollister we can't

see anything that man has built that was

laid out in a straight line may have a

run in it every year it changes a small

bit and it's a progressive thing

the clues include up to one clear conclusion

and without any seismic tremors the Soil in

this town within the heart of the San

Andreas framework still slides

subtly gradually and easily

along

in in one sense the harm that you see

here related with the inching is uh

is clearly sort of beneath control but as

a geologist in case you begin playing that

out for tens of thousands or hundreds of

thousands or millions of a long time the

results of that gotten to be enormous

for numerous a long time the inching ground that

moved without earthquakes remained an

unsolved riddle

[Music]

but at that point the examination moved 100

miles south to another small community

where the arrive too creeps along

[Music]

the town of Parkfield contains a

populace of fair 37 individuals and a

bridge which ranges right over the San

Andreas Blame

Bridge separates the Pacific Plate on

one side

from the North American Plate on the

other

the bridge railings have begun to bend

I'm right presently on a Pacific Plate

on the west side of the San Andreas

Blame

and you know the the San Andreas comes

off the flank of that slope and right

across that field right under the bridge

and after that right over by the corner of

that building or that fence post and

at that point on off to Center Mountain

the development here around the bridge is

strikingly comparative to the moderate inching

ground of Hollister

but there's one critical contrast

here in Parkfield each couple of

decades or so this Town does have

seismic tremors

they're fair small Tremors but they're

enormous enough to be recorded on seismic tremor

observing seismographs

that's why the town gladly brags of

being the seismic tremor capital of the

world

but it's perhaps more precisely called

the seismic tremor consider Capital since

researchers are interested by the fact

that seismic tremors here take after a

unsurprising design

somewhere else seismic tremors continuously strike

without caution the toll of passing and

annihilation made more awful since nobody

knew they were coming

so researchers are frantic for any

clues that might offer assistance foresee when an

seismic tremor could happen

and here in Parkfield the seismic tremors

happen with astounding consistency on

normal each couple of decades or so

[Music]

minor Quakes happened here in 1857 1881

1901

1922 1934 and 1966.

after the 66 seismic tremor agents

set up a organize of checking

disobedient to see in case the blame gave any

caution some time recently the another seismic tremor

arrived 

they anticipated it at some point between 1988

and 1993 but it was late and months of

holding up extended into a long time

but still the researchers held up

until at last in December 2004 the

long-awaited seismic tremor arrived and was

caught on film from a presently marginally worn

and harmed camera

the seismic tremor motion picture may not have appeared

that noteworthy but the disobedient

collected a mass of data

[Music]

the information didn't after all offer assistance with

seismic tremor expectation but it did

pinpoint where the seismic tremor begun

Underground

which told examiners where to see

another

profound down beneath the Stop field

Farmland

beginning marginally to one side of the

blame the point was to point in and wound

into the exceptionally heart of the San Andreas

[Music]

of penetrating long centers of shake were

extricated from the precise spot where the

seismic tremor occurred

this was the primary time the group pioneer

geologist Check zobach had ever seen

rocks from the center of the San Andreas

what we're looking at here are centers

from the act of San Andreas blame from a

profundity of around two miles so for the

soil science Community these are like

moon rocks as we were attempting to unearth

these centers we had a extraordinary bargain of

penetrating trouble the San Andreas

blame was actually battling back

after nine weeks of endeavoring to

recover the course within the center of a

tremendous lightning storm nearly a scene

straightforwardly out of Hollywood with the

thunder and lightning these centers came

to the surface

and so it was a huge feeling of

fulfillment the lightning and thunder

fair made it that much more sensational

and we're all wearing gloves we didn't

need any oil from our fingers to influence

the core

and the the run the show was simply touch the

center as little as conceivable

I'm not gonna hold up for you folks

square the reality was we couldn't offer assistance

ourselves and uh

um it was fair such a momentous thing

to be really looking at the San

Andreas blame for the exceptionally to begin with time

at that point we all need to touch it a small bit

buried inside the shake centers they found

a vital clue around the way that arrive

slips along the San Andreas

they found serpentanite

sir Penn Knight is an unordinary shake sort

it was initially shaped at the base of

the sea hull and it zoomed up onto

the landmass but the reason that

serpentinite is so curiously is that

serpentinite is exceptionally effectively modified to

powder it permits the shake to slide at exceptionally

moo Constrain levels it's Bird of prey powder is

exceptionally dangerous

talc's crystalline structure of delicate

sliding level plates makes it one of the

slipperiest Rocks known to science

[Music]

so Tau might well be a key mineral in in

choosing how the fault is really

working in in central California we see

that the mystery of the slipping San

Andreas blame is really the Rocks

themselves

the powder clarifies the little seismic tremors

of Stop field nobody's however penetrated to

explore the rocks at Hollister but

researchers suspect the powder is display

there too

breaks within the divider appear the arrive Creeps

in Hollister

and a twist within the bridge uncovers the

same inching ground in a adjacent town

Shake centers extricated from the blame

contain serpentinite

driving agents to the gentlest and

slipperiest mineral powder which

lubricates a few parts of the blame

the examination is having victory but

one significant address remains to be

replied what will the San Andreas blame

do another

the investigation into the San Andreas

blame is attempting to foresee when and

where its following major seismic tremor will

strike

so distant the as it were certain expectation is

the distant far off future of the San

Andreas

2 million a long time ahead on the off chance that the plate

developments proceed to follow their

design Los Angeles will conclusion up getting to be

a suburb of San Francisco

but expectations on a shorter time scale

are more troublesome

in case you were to inquire the address

can we anticipate seismic tremors my reply

would be no since I know what your

address truly implied is you know can we

foresee that an seismic tremor is aiming to

happen on a certain blame at a certain

time that able to indicate in the future

and we cannot do that but there are numerous

things we will anticipate we will foresee

which issues are likely to deliver the

enormous seismic tremors ready to anticipate how enormous

the seismic tremors are likely to be and we

can indeed foresee the likelihood of the

seismic tremor event over a few period

of a few decades

expectations are most vital where the

San Andreas runs to the south of LA

here within the Coachella Valley leave

geological evidence of seismic tremors

extends back 1500 a long time and more

and they take after a customary design

major seismic tremors strike here with

dull consistency each 200 a long time

but the most recent one is long past due there

hasn't been an seismic tremor here for more

than 300 a long time

that's a concern since parts of the

San Andreas blame framework runs straight

from here towards the city of Los

Angeles

The Flaws will transmit seismic tremor

stuns in a straight line towards

California's greatest city

geologist Yuri fiaco routinely screens

how the ground moves on either side of

the blame line

he lines up his GPS hardware absolutely

over a arrangement of metal pegs settled into

the ground

remote

is vital for evaluating how quick the

fault slips at depths and what is the

rate of amassing of strain within the

hull in other words how near the hull

is brought to disappointment by a slip of the

blamed profundities the rehashed Ultra

exact estimations uncover that land

here on the surface barely moves at all

typically a issue since profound

underground the stresses and strains are

still building up the blame is moving

adjusts at the Fairly high speed and this

misshapening is developing and developing and

developing with time

miles underground the Profound blame is

moving at more than an inch a year

which tells fianco that within the century

since the final shudder the surface ought to

have moved 300 inches 25 feet or more

but it hasn't so sooner or later

Something's Gotta Give

and fialco knows what that something

will be

the Rocks themselves

and one example is

this sort of shake which is called

stone or this is in fact the shake out

of which most of the Soil hull is made

a magnifying instrument uncovers the crystalline

structure of the stone the gems

make the Rocks extreme but they have a

covered up shortcoming

the bonds between them may all of a sudden

break beneath push

essentially once this material sets

it is able to

split and be sheared on the crease surface

and the brittle behavior of these rocks

is what lies behind the material science of

seismic tremors

rock rocks underlie all of the San

Andreas fault but right here the Rocks

Beneath more prominent stretch than anywhere else

since it's so numerous centuries since a

major Tremor happened

and presently we're over the 300 year constrain

and so it implies that the strain the

sum of strain that has been

collected on the blame at this point

is very near to the greatest strain that

this blame has ever seen through its uh

geologic record and this is a blame that

is able of producing incredible

damaging seismic tremors

fialko accepts the coming Quake might

be the enormous one that individuals have been

talking around for a long time

facts may well be awful since of the

populace thickness of Southern

California

when the final gigantic Shudder happened 300

a long time prior Los Angeles was fair a tiny

Spanish mission Community with less

than 100 people

presently it's America's moment biggest city

with nearly 11 million individuals living in

the seismic tremor defenseless metropolitan

zone

individuals who live in California likely

encounter a smaller and direct measure

seismic tremor each year few things moving

in your house but it's truly really

kind of fun there's no major

annihilation individuals fair go on with their

life much greater occasions on the other

hand are very a bit diverse story

with the danger to Los Angeles getting to be

ever clearer the examination is

nearing its conclusion

data from rehashed GPS measurements in

the desert uncover prove that stretch

is building up

while examination of the rocks of the

crust appear they may not take the strain

for much longer

all the evidence points towards a

possibly tremendous seismic tremor building up

Southern California

and new experiments suggest the coming

Shudder might be distant more awful than anyone

that ever imagined

there's unused direness within the

examination into the San Andreas blame

as revealed by later prove compiled

by 300 of America's most regarded

researchers

they cautioned that Los Angeles will be

crushed on the off chance that a major Shudder strikes

along the southern section of the blame

line

whereas there hasn't been a major Quake

for hundreds of a long time indeed little ones

can still be dangerous

just like the Northridge Earthquake which

struck this LA suburb in 1994.

bursting along an branch of the most

San Andreas blame the Shake was as it were a

size 6.7 considered direct on the

scale of seismic tremor estimation

but it still killed 72 people and

harmed 12 000 more

and unused prove proposes Mother Nature

might have a lot more in store for Los

Angeles

researchers have long known that

seismic tremors create several distinct

sets of waves

they travel at distinctive speeds each

spreading harm and destruction out

from the epicenter

advanced city buildings in seismic tremor

inclined ranges like California are

designed to cope with such waves

Presently modern investigate by geophysicist

Teacher Ares rosakis recommends that the

San Andreas may offer a unused and indeed

more dangerous threat

razakis inquires about how seismic tremors

break along straight-line issues fair

just like the San Andreas where it approaches

Los Angeles he makes his claim smaller than expected seismic tremors

speaking to the San Andreas Blame by a

hairline split in a thick straightforward

piece

this uncommon fabric appears up inner

push lines when it's lit by a laser

and the seismic tremor is activated by a

modest blast

three

two one zero

the stack has dropped

and the blast was huge sufficient that we

indeed have a split

an ultra high-speed camera capturing 10

million outlines a moment uncovers a

startling and recently found

marvel

this Solidified picture uncovers push lines

speeding along the scaled down San Andreas in

the milliseconds after the blast

the cone to the cleared out of this Outline could be a

already unrecognized sort of stun

wave hustling along the burst line from

the seismic tremor Center

on a minuscule scale it looks and

moves precisely just like the sonic boom

created when a supersonic air ship such

as Harmony breaks the sound obstruction

since we too see Mac cones lines that

are radiated from the Delight tips eyes

from the tips of moving airplanes

and similar to a sonic boom it can be

perilous

the same sense that we listen the sonic

boom from the Harmony you're planning to

feel the sonic boom from the Delight the

peril comes since numerous tall rises

fair aren't built to manage with additional

stretch from this recently found type

of stun wave so in case you're an old

building for illustration

you'll take one way you'd like to

murate a few harm

and exceptionally before long after that you simply will get

exceptionally solid ground shaking since of

other sorts of waves coming moreover

the tall speed breaks that razakis

calls super sheer happen where deficiencies

run in a straight line

which might offer assistance clarify a 100 year ancient

puzzle encompassing the extraordinary San

Francisco Shudder the characteristic calamity

which propelled the whole San Andreas

examination

the overpowering harm in San Francisco

has long seen shockingly out of

extent to the 7.8 greatness of the

shudder

and there's a especially straight

area of the San Andreas drawing nearer

San Francisco

so numerous researchers presently accept that the

harm was more noteworthy than anticipated since

the 1906 Tremor had traveled at Super

sheer speed

of More noteworthy concern to Present day Crisis

Administrations isn't what happened a century

back but what could happen tomorrow

since there's a comparable straight

segment of faulted ground heading

straight towards Los Angeles

and in the event that a super sheer earthquake creates

on that line at that point the results might

be disastrous

all of the investigation's notices

almost the San Andreas came together in

the drop of 2008 with the greatest

seismic tremor penetrate ever held in California

on the off chance that this seismic tremor would have happened

in reality there was there would have

been buildings coming down we know that

there would be no water presently in certain

areas that's what this exercise is all

approximately

but what are the genuine chances of Los

Angeles before long being hit by a massive

seismic tremor

startling the most excellent logical

agreement presently cautions that there's a 99

chance of a major shudder in Southern

California inside the next 30 A long time

to superior get it the danger to La

the geologists created their think about

mutually with specialists in charge of the

city's catastrophe arranging

and none of them question that the huge

Tremor is coming

it truly isn't indeed a question of if

any longer

the shaking is reaching to be severe for

two to three minutes

and after that it's attending to halt

and at that point you have that minute of quiet

that regularly happens some time recently you begin

hearing the car alerts and all those

other sounds simply have in a catastrophe

like this the think about gauges that a

major seismic tremor within the LA metro area

would cause 2 000 passings 50 000 wounds

and 200 billion dollars of harm

you're gonna have conflagrations

creating tens of pieces will be on

fire the water lines has cracked there

is no coming out of

the that's the kind of bad dream

situation that we're looking at

this Specter of calamity to California's

individuals and cities persuades the look

to unwind the privileged insights of the San

Andreas Blame

all the prove is at long last in

the harm reports from the 1906

fiasco appear the wrong 800 mile way

the diverse sorts of shake at muscle

Shake give clues to how the blame was

made 20 million a long time ago

the riverbends demonstrate how quick the land

is moving

the mineral Tau clarifies why some parts

slip without major tremors

the brittle granite rocks uncover a

danger to Los Angeles

and later lab experiments uncover unused

and more unsafe seismic tremor stun

waves

but one objective has escaped The Shake

analysts who consider the most noteworthy blame

line on Earth

when will the sleeping San Andreas come

to life once once more

it can be any time

the only certainty is that nothing is

certain within the ever-evolving story of

how the Soil was made

Soil a 4.5 billion year ancient Planet

still advancing

as landmasses move and Clash volcanoes

emit and Icy masses develop and subside

the Earth's outside is carved in various

and fascinating ways

taking off a path of geographical Puzzles

behind

in this scene the Marianas Trench the

most profound point on Soil is explored

its sheer dividers cut seven miles into the

Pacific Sea

the riddle of what made this profound

dark Chasm takes science detectives on

a few of the most dangerous Plunges ever

endeavored

deep into the chasm

scouring the sea floor scientists

reveal a strange undersea world of

red hot mountains

unusual mud volcanoes

and the largest geological structure on

Soil

disclosures from this one of a kind Underwater

World will revolutionize our

understanding of the effective powers

that shape not fair the trench but the

Earth itself

covered up profound underneath the waves of the

Western Pacific lies the Marianas Trench

most profound point of all the seas

the first step on the Journey of what

made this strange scar within the

Earth's outside and how it continues to

form the planet takes us back to 1872.

when a British investigate vessel HMS

Challenger set out on the first ever

mission to outline the sea floor

all through most of recorded history men

fair expect that Past a certain level

the sea was lovely level lovely dead

reasonably dead

they weren't anticipating to discover anything

exceptionally curiously

for four years the Challenger

bungled the seas covering seventy

thousand miles

a third of the distance to the Moon

the group plumbed The Profundities each 140

miles employing a add up to of 249 miles of rope

and hundreds of pounds of lead weight

it was tedious back-breaking work but at

the time it was the as it were way to degree

the depth of the sea floor

good

when they got to the Western Pacific 200

miles off the island of Guam the group

routinely brought down the Rope for a

measurement

but the weight kept on dropping and

dropping

it's a enormous shock

no one thought the sea was this profound

so all of a sudden we've got researchers

saying why is that

[Music]

thank you

inevitably the weight struck the foot

at

4475 comprehends

about five miles underneath the ocean's

surface

the researcher would be going wow we

found something and what does it cruel

is it a small hole is it a huge gap

what kind of highlight is it down there

there's a entire parcel of questions you get

after you discover this one spectacular

reading

the Challenger Undertaking marked the

birth of modern oceanography and

given the primary unrefined outline of the

sea floor

it showed how the ocean floor gently

inclines absent from the arrive and after that

dives thousands of feet into endless

level Fields

but the Western Pacific is different it

drops off once more into the Five Mile profound

gap a hole that blew right out of the

water the long-held conviction that the sea

floor was level and featureless

and it brought forth a mystery

since no one seem get it how this

unusual submerged highlight came approximately

it would be 75 a long time some time recently any answers

developed

it took a progressive modern innovation

sonar to thrust the investigation forward

to the following significant organize

outside

was to begin with created within the early 1900s

and after that perfected during the 1940s to

identify submarines sneaking within the Deep

[Music]

the framework works by pumping sound waves

through the water

the waves bounce off solid objects and

are reflected back to a detector

by measuring the time it takes for the

sound waves to bounce back researchers

realized they might construct a strikingly

accurate picture of the world beneath

the waves

the world's major Naval force spend a part of

time and exertion developing submarine

chasing innovation

at that point the hydrographers Find simply

can utilize this to chart the foot of the

sea and it's an awful part cheaper and

less demanding than using large numbers of

mariners pulling on ropes

in 1951 a British Naval force inquire about transport

returned to the profound gap found by the

Challenger Endeavor

but this time they were equipped with

modern modern sonar gear

and the comes about were astounding

nitty gritty sonar Maps uncovered that the

profound gap within the Pacific Ocean Floor

isn't a hole at all but portion of a

gigantic trench 30 times deeper than the

Empire State Building is tall

it runs twice the length of California

1500 miles from the southeast of Guam to

the northwest of the Mariana Islands 

individuals were likely shocked by what

they were seeing since clearly the

sea floor had colossal changes in

help was exceptionally precipitous in a few

places had extraordinary deeps in other places

to a geologist this would be amazingly

energizing

indeed inside the trench itself there are

surprising varieties

at its southern conclusion lies the most noteworthy

shock of all

the floor drops down another two miles

to its least point

a amazing seven miles underneath the

waves

researchers had found the most profound

portion of the seas

indeed nowadays it is the least known point

on the planet

they named this portion of the trench the

Challenger Profound in honor of the transport

that found it

to induce a sense of fair how profound trenches

are in the event that we take the stature of Mount

Everest

we would still have approximately a mile of

water over us some time recently we get to the

ocean's surface

but how the Marianas Trench was shaped

remained a mystery

investigators chosen perfect way">the most perfect way to

discover the reply was to plunge to the

foot of the trench

to see for themselves the most reduced point

on the planet the Challenger Profound

but they confronted a major issue

at the foot of the trench they would

ought to fight with weight a thousand

times more grounded than at the surface

that's the comparable of being pressed

on all sides by the weight of 50 enormous

Planes

to illustrate the impacts of such

pressure scientists utilize a sham head

nowadays what we're aiming to do is really

put one of these styrofoam wig heads in

the weight chamber

and uncover it to the pressure we would

see within the Marianas Trench that's almost

16 000 PSI

a human cranium would be smashed to a pulp

but the rubbery head will as it were have all

the discuss pressed out

wow that's littler

and here's what the initial size was

fair for comparison

very sensational lovely Stark contrast

between something that hasn't been seven

miles profound within the sea and something

that has happy I'm not going there

at the Mariana Trench human life is

outlandish

we're not prepared to stand up to those sorts

of weights

and so it's fundamental to ensure people

from that sort of an environment

the challenge to Engineers was how to

fulfill this

in 1953 Swiss researcher Auguste Picard

outlined the Trieste

a spearheading vehicle that seem

withstand the pulverizing weights

[Music]

the submersible was ruled by a

50-foot long Frame filled with light

Flying gasoline and Lead weights to

control buoyancy

thrown underneath it was a modest six-foot

circular cabin with five inch thick

steel dividers

at last after seven a long time of

modifications and man test Jumps no

more profound than three and a half miles

The Trieste was prepared to endeavor the

seven miles to the foot of the trench

the commander of this unsafe

undertaking was U.S Navy lieutenant and

profound ocean Pilgrim Wear Walsh

I know the space explorers that go through

this all the time why do you have to be

there why can't we fair put up a robot

to do things

you've need to be there because that's

what we do

as it were a number of officers and scientists knew

approximately the hazardous Mission which was

propelled in January 1960 from the

Western Pacific island of Guam

Guam in those days was kind of a

Backwater it was fair right for us

since we were attempting to do this

venture sort of out of locate since we

weren't as well beyond any doubt it was attending to work

the Navy fair didn't need to be

humiliated by a fizzled science

spectacular

Walsh was the child of The Trieste

originator design and oceanographer

Jacques Picard

two men would spend the another nine hours

crushed inside the cramped circle

and we had 20 cubic feet of space interior

that's approximately the same as a family

fridge

and the temperature was almost that cold

interior

it was a dramatization

the Marianas Trench is one of the foremost

farther unwelcoming places on Soil

in January 1960 two profound ocean pioneers

Wear Walsh and Jacques Picard dove

into its depths on board the submersible

The Trieste

at a speed of just three miles per hour

they started their moderate plunge into the

Dusk Zone

by three thousand feet the obscurity was

add up to

the as it were light was from the

trieste's capable lights

The Profundities we're working at it was

always black

the as it were thing that Lit Up The Pit was

the bioluminescence from creatures and

Plankton

like fireflies they carry their possess

light sources with them

encased in their five-inch thick steel

circle Walsh and Picard rapidly passed

their test jump record of eighteen

thousand feet

everything showed up to be getting to arrange

at the raise of the cabin the team were

ensured by a twofold layer of glass

two hours into the jump the external torment

split

we had a awesome enormous blast

we didn't know what it was we're almost

20 000 feet and we looked around and

checked everything

each square inch of their modest

life-supporting capsule was battling

back eight tons of weight

with the external torment broken the as it were

thing between the men and instant passing

was a single sheet of glass in the event that the internal

window had broken we would have been

right away dead perhaps indeed some time recently we knew

it

but inconceivably the internal torment remained

watertight

Walsh and Picard chosen to proceed The

Plummet

after a tense claustrophobic four hours

and 48 minutes they drawn nearer the

foot of the trench as it were to be startled

by development on the ocean floor

fair some time recently we landed we saw a level angle

almost a foot long

and that's a bottom dwelling angle so in the event that

you see one there are others

no one expected to see life at these

smashing profundities but it implied the

Pioneers had come to their objective

outside

the exceptionally foot of the Marianas Trench

the profundity gage with a perusing of 35 800

feet about seven miles underneath the

surface affirmed the sonar discoveries

utilized interior their bubble of breathable

discuss the two pilgrims were closer to the

Earth's center than man had ever been

we took a self-portrait

that's the picture that you see

so we're attending to do it and we did it

but there was work to be done

Walsh and Picard needed to create nitty gritty

perceptions of the enormous Trench

Tragically The Trieste mixed up a

cloud of fine fine dregs from the

sea floor that clouded their View

it's like being a bowl of drain at that

point so realizing we're not attending to

see anything we chosen going back up to

the surface

off the island of Guam the cleric

surfaces after a plunge into the

Marianas Trench after nine overwhelming

hours submerged Walsh and Picard

returned to the surface on January 23

1960.

and authoritatively entered the record books

for the deepest dive of all time

to this day their extraordinary feat has

never been rehashed

the mission was a victory

but the secret remained

geologists still didn't get it what

may have shaped the colossal Trench

in the event that they couldn't discover the reply interior

the trench they would got to see

somewhere else

perhaps there was something some place on

the sea floor that might explain the

trench's roots

all through the 50s and 60s a group of

geologists driven by Princeton's Harry Hess

compiled sonar information from all of the

world's seas

it was as in spite of the fact that they had pulled out a

mammoth plug to drain away all the water

and uncover the ocean floor

their Maps uncovered that the Marianas

Trench is fair a modest division of a

arrange of gigantic submerged Canyons

stretching right around the planet

but that wasn't all

running parallel to the trench on the

other side of the Pacific the outline appeared

a mammoth submerged mountain extend the

East Pacific Edge

and this too is portion of a Worldwide Arrange

a forty Thousand Mile long chain of

mountain ranges that ring the globe like

the seams of a baseball

to form the biggest geographical include

on Soil

it was a major advancement within the

examination one that scientists hoped

might explain the trench's arrangement

The Following Step was clear investigators

required to get it whether there was a

association between the trench and the

East Pacific Ridge

the Breakthrough came from the

unlikeliest of sources

amid the Cold War the U.S built a tremendous

arrange of underground seismometers to

choose up nuclear bomb testing around the

world

accidentally the seismometers moreover

identified normally occurring earthquakes

when geologists plotted these on a map a

design risen

[Music]

the seismic tremors were clustered along the

ocean's edges and trenches

it was a disclosure that transformed our

understanding of the Soil

geologists realized the contact that

causes seismic tremors comes from developments

that must be happening profound Underneath The

Edges and trenches

with this awesome speculation in seismology

it got to be possible to find exceptionally

accurately where seismic tremors had happened

and it was these things the exact

location the depth and the motion that

truly gave the outlines of plate

tectonics

it was the birth of an exceptional unused

Hypothesis

strong layer of rock the hull on which

the arrive and sea sits is broken up

into a arrangement of vast chunks the

geologists call structural plates

it's these plates that are moving

crushing past each other

and activating seismic tremors

the submerged edges and trenches sit

on the boundaries between structural

plates

the East Pacific Edge and the Marianas

Trench lie on inverse edges of the

Pacific Plate

journey to find what formed the

Marianas Trench is collecting

extra prove

The Trieste plunge to the foot of the

trench

and affirmed that it is the deepest

point on the planet

sonar Maps then revealed the East

Pacific ocean edge running parallel to

the trench

to unravel the riddle of the Marianas

Trench examiners required to discover out

precisely what was happening at the East

Pacific Edge which implied investigating

these endless mountains eight thousand feet

beneath water

thank you the pieces of the Marianas

Trench perplex are falling into put

with the information that it lies on the

western edge of the Pacific structural

plate

on the opposite side of the plate lies

the East Pacific Sea Edge

portion of an gigantic chain of underwater

mountain ranges that ring the globe to

make the biggest geographical highlight on

Soil

researchers had a hunch that this

colossal Ridge might offer assistance clarify how

the trench was shaped

and they found a major clue midway

around the globe where the ridge passed

underneath the middle of the Atlantic Sea

amid the Cold War the U.S Naval force

created a modern procedure to spot Soviet

they checked the Oceans with a instrument called

frantic a attractive irregularity locator which

seem pinpoint steel bodies hiding in

the Profound

but they lurched over something else

running parallel on either side of the

edge they found bizarre Stripes of

attractive rocks rotating positive and

negative absent from the ridge's top

genuinely Mid-Atlantic Bridge coming

down through here nearly flawlessly

symmetric on either side of that are

these white and dark stripes these have

regularly been called zebra stripes remote

geologists know that the Soil is like a

mammoth magnet with a north and a South

Shaft but the attractive posts aren't settled

each 300 000 a long time or so the attractive

field all of a sudden flips 180 degrees

when the field flips a compass that was

already indicating North will swing to

the South

this turning around of beerus attractive field

could be a exceptionally curiously and energizing but

exceptionally confusing wonder for

geophysicists to clarify

researchers think this inversion clarifies

the stripes either side of the sea

edge

within the 1960s geologists found that

liquid volcanic shake known as magma

swelled up from profound underground to

make the edges within the Atlantic and

Pacific

as magma Wells up between the structural

plates it pushes the ocean floor up and

shapes the Colossal mid-ocean edge

thousands of feet tall

when the shake is hot and liquid its

attractive minerals line up with the

north-south course of the Earth's

attractive field

as the magma cools the minerals are

bolted in position

these rocks act as a changeless record of

the attractive posts area when the

Rocks were formed

increasingly magma is constrained up the ancient

outside is pushed absent from the Edge and

Records the inversions within the Earth's

attractive extremity

in case you have got reversals of attractive

extremity at that point the seafloor acts sort of

like a tape recorder and Records these

changes in magnetization at that point the

design of attractive stripes permits

people to calculate the speed at which

the plates are moving separated

[Music]

zebra stripes are confirmation that over time

the ocean floor in both the Atlantic and

the Pacific is spreading absent from The

Ridges at a rate of more than two inches

a year

a geologist required confirmation that magma

made The Edge

in the event that ruddy hot liquid shake is shaping the

gigantic mountain extend within the Pacific

the encompassing water ought to be warm

remote

1977 a group of researchers set out to

find whether this warm water truly

existed

Dudley Cultivate was the pilot for these

noteworthy Plunges it's been an energizing

occupation since you're on cutting

edge of science new discoveries all the

time

each Journey there's a unused gather of

researchers with unused logical

goals and there's the exploration

and the revelation

and that's really what puts the excite

within the work

for weeks the team scanned the undersea

mountains without victory

and after that they hit the big stake

a unusual column of Shake

heaving hot toxic gas

and we saw the water was sort of

shining sort of like a bubbling in a

glass tea kettle or something

we stuck the temperature test in there

and measured 38 39 degrees Fahrenheit

which was truly astonishing since the the

sea may be a colossal warm sink

so to see something warm like that was

kind of startling

in these columns of shake the Undertaking

had found the warm from the magma

surging up from profound interior the Soil

it wasn't warming the water equitably along

the edge it was channeled up through

interesting aqueous vents

once you make these discoveries you

do not know how noteworthy they are

genuine importance of them possibly take

a few a long time to appreciate

and this was one of those times

[Music]

for the investigation into the Marianas

Trench these vents are a definitive piece

of prove

[Music]

they affirmed that magma is persistently

making unused hull at the Pacific Sea

Edge

and attractive zebra stripes demonstrated that

ancient outside is pushed away from the edge

towards the other side of the Pacific

Plate towards the Marianas Trench

but this presents researchers with a

perplex in the event that unused hull is being made at

the ocean edge and the Soil isn't

extending at that point the ancient outside must be

vanishing somewhere else

the reason that there's not getting

greater with seafloor spreading is

since the same sum of seafloor is

being annihilated within the Pacific

something within the Pacific Sea is

eating up the ocean floor

all the evidence points to Marianas

Trench

within the chase to find what shaped the

Marianas Trench researchers presently know

crust created at the ocean edge is

being eaten up some place and by

something within the Pacific Sea

they suspect the Marianas Trench is

involved

would come not from the trench

but from these

the Mariana Islands

chain of volcanoes that break through

the ocean's surface 200 miles west of

the trench

researchers taken note the island chain

mirrors the trench's correct shape

this led them to think the trench was

dependable for the Island's creation

on the off chance that you see pictures of the Mariana's

Trench it's bended and the line of

volcanoes that it produces is bended

exactly parallel to it

geologists accept that the trench

shaped the volcanoes through a prepare

called subduction

[Music]

subduction happens where two structural

plates collide as they pound past each

other the heavier plate is pushed

beneath the lighter plate

the slipping plate is constrained down into

the Earth's escalation hot insides

called the mantle

it takes with it water and dregs

built up over millions of a long time

volcanoes frame over subduction zones

not since the Soil is more smoking there

but because this is where we're taking

the water that once was within the sea

it's taken into the mantle and gets

sweated out causes the mantle to melt in

this magma is what at that point Rises and ejects

explosively out these volcanoes

the water in the silt strengths magma

to whirl up and thrust through the plate

over

and when it breaks the surface it

creates volcanoes just like the volcanoes

that frame the Mariana Islands

it was subduction that shaped the

islands west of the trench

and gave investigators the Breakthrough

they'd been trying to find

because here at last was a prepare

effective sufficient to form the Marianas

Trench

as the plummeting plate Dives down it

digs into the mantle

here the colliding plates shape a trench

a monster wrinkle within the ocean floor

it appeared that scientists had at long last

clarified how the trench was shaped

there was fair one issue

an awfully large issue

around the world subduction zones cause

violent seismic tremors and disastrous

tsunamis

we know subduction is happening since

of the dynamic earthquakes and these are

the most annihilating seismic tremors

this can be the earthquake that produced

the torrent in Sumatra

too the other exceptionally large earthquakes in

The frozen north and Chile

the Marianas Trench the most profound

subduction zone in the world hasn't

caused the obliterating seismic tremor since

records started within the 17th century

agents required to know why

Ok that's that's uh the sixty Thousand

Dollar Address

they trust the trench's shallower Western

Edge might give the reply

here they found an charming chain of

submerged Slopes two miles below the

surface of the ocean

Engineers drilled down into the hills

and collected center tests

and when the researchers analyzed the

tests they discovered the slopes were

actually volcanoes

and they spewed out not lava

but mud

the fine fine mud is made up of a

delicate sort of rock that has been ground

up in the subduction zone

it seemed this delicate shake might clarify

why there have been no major seismic tremors

at the Marianas Trench

everyone features a sense of what a volcano

is but not all volcanoes emit molten

rocks there's some volcanoes that eject

mud and a certain kind of unordinary kind

of mud within the Marianas is made out of

serpentine and Serpentine is a very powerless

Shake and it can be scratched with a

knife or something like that

agents realized the pounding

plates pulverize the delicate shake to create a

greasing up mud that anticipates huge

seismic tremors

at that point the mud bubbles up to the sea

floor where it shapes the interesting mud

volcanoes found along the trench's

western edge

other parts of the world just like the Andes

or perhaps Indonesia you've got two plates

that are grinding together and one of

the plates is very solid and it takes

a enormous seismic tremor to burst that plate

interface but if these rocks are powerless

like they are within the Marianas where

you've got these serpentinites those are

very weak and it doesn't take much

vitality at all to get the two plates to

Glide one past the other

at final geologists had discovered what

created the Marianas Trench

[Music]

50 million a long time prior the Pacific Plate

slipped beneath the edge of the Philippine

plate

as it bowed and plunged into the Earth's

mantle it shaped the Colossal Marianas

Trench

and the plate is still moving

like a mammoth transport belt the Earth's

outside voyages gradually over the Pacific

Plate from its origin within the East

Pacific Edge to its burial ground ten

thousand miles away within the Marianas

Trench

nowadays the Pacific plates development can be

tracked in genuine time

has come from GPS innovation where we

can really put a transmitter on an

island and come back year after year and

really follow it moving many

centimeters a year towards the trench

eating up the crust at a rate of three

inches a year around as quick as a human

fingernail develops

each four million years it swallows an

zone the size of the Joined together States

by consuming the outside made at the

Pacific Sea Ridge the voracious

Marianas Trench is the world's largest

recycling plant

but there was one remaining and major

piece of the astound to find

scientists still didn't know why it is

the most profound trench on Earth

they suspected the age of the ocean floor

at the bottom of the trench May give

the reply

it turns out there's a truly solid

relationship between the age of the

seafloor and its profundity within the water

in 1999 a team of profound ocean Drillers

returned to the trench to collect center

tests

one great thing about drilling station

crust is we really got pieces of it

so we're holding our hands here the

fabric that's actually getting

subducted at the Marianas Trench and it

turned out to be 170 million years old

so ready to say with confidence that's the

oldest ocean floor some time recently it's getting

gulped up in the mantle at the trench

why is this piece of shake the oldest on

the sea floor

the ocean floor at the Marianas Trench is

so ancient since it's been so long since

it was born so it was born within the

equivalent of the Eastern Pacific today

and it's fair been going on longer than

than any other place in the seas

some time recently it's been subducted

the Pacific Plate is the planet's

biggest structural plate covering an zone

11 times the estimate of the Joined together States

goodness

when crust bubbled up at the edge 170

million a long time back it was light and

buoyant

but as it traveled ten thousand miles

across the plate it cooled and got to be

Compact and dense

over millions of a long time the dense crust

got heavier and started to sink into the

mantle below

researchers realized that because the

crust at the Marianas Trench is the

most seasoned sea hull it's moreover the

heaviest and so has sunk more profound into the

mantle than any other region of ocean

hull

here at final was the clarification for the

trench's uncommon profundity

the picture of the Marianas Trench is

nearly complete

the examination into the Marianas

Trench has one final puzzle to unravel

at the trench's southern end the ocean

floor plummets a further ten thousand

feet

into a seven mile profound Chasm called the

Challenger Deep

it's the most reduced point on the planet

but so distant researchers have been incapable

to clarify why this one segment of the

trench is so profound

now they accept the shape of the

descending tectonic plate May hold the

reply

the Challenger Deep In expansion could be a

small bit more profound because of some

peculiarities relating to how the slab

that's going down is carrying on

a contract piece of crust has torn absent

from the Pacific Plate's descending Edge

well it's basically got to do with how

the slab pushes The Shelf out of the

way

where you've got a limit slab like you

have at the Challenger Deep it can sink

nearly vertically because the mantle

that it's attempting to uproot can move

around out of the way

examiners have finally unraveled the

mysteries of the Marianas Trench

the prepare they've made a disclosure

with suggestions that extend far

beyond the trench itself

considering the sea edges Driven geologists

to accept that magma welling up at The

Edges was pushing the plates separated

but the exploration of the Marianas

Trench has changed this thought until the end of time

individuals utilized to think that perhaps the

magma would kind of push the plates

apart and that thought is generally

reduced presently

[Music]

as the ocean crust travels from the

Pacific Sea Edge to the trench it

changes from a buoyant red hot magma

into a colder denser and heavier hull 

the Plate's Driving Edge gets to be so

overwhelming that it drags the rest of the

plate along behind it

said the trenches are sinking down into

the mantle and pulling the plates separated

at the edges and the magma fair

latently fills within the crevices

[Music]

the examination into the Marianas

Trench has revolutionized our

understanding of how the Earth's plates

move

we presently know a around the world organize of

subduction zones drag structural plates

around the globe

fueling the development of landmasses over

millions of a long time

and moving the exceptionally Soil we stand on

trenches

the Pacific Plate is the quickest moving

of the nine major plates on the planet

since it is encompassed by handfuls of

destructive trenches just like the Marianas

they are devouring the sea hull

speedier than the sea edge can deliver

it

over millions of years the Pacific Plate

will recoil until at some point within the

removed future the biggest sea on

soil will vanish Australia will

crash into the Joined together States reshaping

our planet

maybe one day downtown Seattle will

compete for Genuine Bequest with a suburb of

Sydney Australia

and all since of subduction zones like

the Marianas Trench

but for all its noteworthiness man has

as it were ever plunged to the bottom of the

trench once

and there are no prompt plans to

return

envision inquiring somebody

what is the Greenery and Fauna of

California and saying that somebody went through

10 minutes there picked up two ants come

back and said they've examined California

that's likely how well we know the

Marianas Trench

[Music]

less than five percent of the world's

seas have been investigated

but as it were by returning to the ocean's

exceptionally most profound comes to will we completely

comprehend the incredible powers that

reuse and revamp our world

the way I like to think of it is that

sea investigation leads to unused investigate

questions

and if we do not have investigation we

do not indeed know the correct questions to

inquire

it is presently known what a geographical ponder

the Marianas Trench is

since this profound chasm within the Earth's

hull was to begin with found with a length

of rope and a protuberance of lead more than a

century prior prove has heaped up

a record-breaking jump to the most reduced

point on Soil

monster undersea mountain ranges with

unusual attractive zebra stripes verification

that the sea outside is spreading

towards the hungry Marianas Trench lined

with dangerous mud volcanoes which

avoid obliterating seismic tremors

and the planet's most seasoned sea hull the

reason that the Marianas Trench is the

most profound point within the seas

within the darkest and most inaccessible put in

the world researchers have included to their

knowledge about the effective powers that

contribute to the energetic story of our

planet

Soil a 4.5 billion year ancient planet

still advancing as landmasses move and

Clash volcanoes erupt

and Ice sheets develop and retreat

the Earth's crust is carved in various

and captivating ways

taking off a path of geographical Puzzles

behind

in this scene Krakatoa one of the

deadliest volcanoes within the world

more than 100 a long time back it emitted with

such annihilating Anger that it wiped

itself off the confront of the Soil

within the prepare it sent out the loudest

sound in recorded history

slaughtered more than 36 000 individuals

presently this dangerous volcanic Mammoth is back

geologists examine one of the

world's quickest developing volcanoes to

rummage around for clues that will tell them in case

and when Krakatoa will detonate once

again with the same cataclysmic Constrain

as they prize separated the rocks the

answers they discover will be another piece

of the perplex of how the Soil was made

Krakatoa is one of the foremost unsafe

volcanoes the world has ever seen

when it detonated separated in 1883 the impact

Was Listened over nearly 10 percent of the

Earth's surface

it was a around the world Clarion call

declaring the amazing control of

volcanoes

the location of this huge ejection lies

between the Indonesian islands of java

and Sumatra in a channel known as the

Sunda Straits

nowadays a unused well of lava has staked its claim

in precisely the same spot

it's called anak krakatau meaning the

child of Krakatoa

right presently it's within the center of a new

and greatly unsafe stage

Dr Charles Mandeville traveled here to

see on the off chance that the child will one day be as

dangerous as its parent

to see on the off chance that history is approximately to rehash

itself

the stakes are tall

at chance presently are the one million individuals

of java and Sumatra who live inside 50

miles of the volcano

gracious wow see at that we got a small

blast going on

I've kind of been taking after this from

the web from my office but it's

really great to kind of see the thing

live once more

[Music]

I've taken note in coming here that the

spring of gushing lava itself has developed conceivably as

much as 250 to 300 feet since the final

time I've actually stood on its hole

back in 1990.

developing at a rate of 12 feet a year the

1033 foot spring of gushing lava is both one of the

quickest developing and most youthful volcanoes

on the planet

this momentous film appears its

unstable birth in June 1927.

when it to begin with broke through the ocean

floor and erupted out of the water

its fast development is evident prove that

this modern spring of gushing lava is amazingly dynamic

but will it be as dangerous as its parent

these ejections are continuously went with

by a arrangement of ground-shaking Tremors

for geologists these little seismic tremors

are prove that this volcano is

entering a more dangerous stage

seismographs have been exceptionally profound on

unacked inclines to record this

underground activity

but these little Shudders are not the as it were

sign of a perilously dynamic well of lava

a more unpretentious clue is right underneath

mandeville's feet

dark sand shorelines are exceptionally common in

volcanic zones the minerals and the

glass fragments that include the fiery debris

that the spring of gushing lava erupts

is ordinarily dim charcoal gray colored

and as a rule these materials do not stand

up to weathering over long extended

periods of geologic time but you discover

them in generally new perfect frame

when you're close an dynamic well of lava

Anna Krakatoa is seldom totally quiet

but the level of activity in 2008 appears

that the well of lava has become curiously

savage

to find fair how much of a danger it

seem posture within the close future

spring of gushing lava detectives must turn to their

history books to memorize what made its

parent Krakatoa so damaging

typically a story that has interested

geologists for over a century what got

me switch onto volcanology was the 1883

emission I learned about this at school

and I keep in mind considering how incredible

that an island may fair blow itself

into Blankness and what was going on what

was that all approximately what was extraordinary you

know how does that happen and could it

happen once more Somewhere else on Soil

foreign

detonated in 1883

Krakatoa was an uninhabited island with

three Rugged Crests secured in Lavish

vegetation

it was portion of the Dutch East Indies a

flourishing bustling Hub of universal

exchange

Indonesia's riches of minerals and

flavors pulled in numerous Western Dealers

writers and geologists

their reports give first-hand

accounts of what happened some time recently and

during krakatoa's dangerous and stunning

ejection

there had been no imply of volcanic

movement in anyone's memory

no one had a clue that Krakatoa was

approximately to blow

underneath its green and Placid surface

Krakatoa was a time bomb holding up to

detonate

so the to begin with time I do the neighborhood sort of

got that anything was anything unusual

was happening on their Island would have

been in May 1883. the seismic tremors Soil

tremors

these Tremors come to as far as the

capital Batavia more than 100 miles away

few suspected that the island of

Krakatoa seen on the far off Skyline was

to fault

which these seismic tremors were the

to begin with clue to its deadly potential

on May 20th 1883 Krakatoa announced that

it was no insignificant Island

of krakatoa's Three Crests detonated with

extraordinary force

shooting a tuft of Fiery remains hundreds of feet

into the discuss

[Music]

but after these introductory firecrackers the

action showed up to Terminate the local

populace breathed a sigh of help

considering it's secure the representative of the

Dutch East Indies sent a inquire about party

of geologists to the island in late May

where they watched the burned

scene and smoking crater with

amazement

their fastidious report gives present day day

geologists the first clue as to what lay

behind krakatoa's gigantic control

a key disclosure was a layer of pumice

one foot profound that secured the Island

Shores

this pumice is the set magma that

comes from the heart of a spring of gushing lava and

it's perplexed with bubbles

these bubbles propose a geologist that

Krakatoa could be a strata volcano

and those volcanoes that tend to be the

classic volcanoes merely see in

reading material they're exceptionally soak sided like

sort of sharp nearly triangular sort

mountains

these are the foremost perilous sorts of

volcanoes on Soil

they are fueled by liquid shake called

magma known as magma when it's

underground the magma that streams through

these volcanoes is like fluid Explosive

Strada volcanoes are dangerous since

of the source of magma they eject and the

lava that comes out of strata volcanoes

is exceptionally sticky viscous magma

and the peril there is that the sticky

magma frequently contains expansive sums of gas

the bubbles inside the pumice found

on Krakatoa in 1883 appear that the magma

was once stuffed with hazardous gasses

since the magma was so sticky a term

depicting its thickness and resistance

to stream the gas might not effectively Elude

and the arrangement of gas bubbles in the

sticky magma can be capable sufficient to

actually rip the magma separated and in this

in the process you really tear absent

the spring of gushing lava the whole thing gets to be

gets to be hazardous and you produce exceptionally

unsafe volcanic activity

krakatoa's magma had another dangerous

property in some situations the magma can

gotten to be so sticky that it sort of solidifies

up and congests or chokes up the spring of gushing lava

it shapes a kind of a plug or a seal but

what will happen is over time more magma

is coming up and being caught underneath

that plug a few at some point within the future the weight

would be so awesome there'd be so much

Magnum wanted to urge up that you simply fair

rip the plug separated which can deliver

once more a disastrous volcanic ejection

this is often precisely what happened at

Krakatoa on May 20th 1883.

from at that point onwards over the summer it

quietened down a bit but this was truly

the kind of Calm some time recently the storm

the examination into krakatoa's dangerous

potential has delivered imperative

prove

the visit seismic tremors on a skill

krakatau nowadays show the spring of gushing lava is

still perilous

the pumice from 1883 uncovers that

Krakatoa was a stratovolcano its sticky

gas-rich magma making it perilously

hazardous

ejection in May 1883 was marvelous but

underneath the surface Krakatoa was

refueling

an indeed more noteworthy eruption was gathering

Drive out of locate

and out of intellect

and at krakato is one of the speediest

developing volcanoes within the world

geologists are exploring its risk

to the locale

they have turned to the past to uncover

what made its guardians so dangerous

in 1883 precisely 100 days after Krakatoa

first blew

the volcano appeared its genuine control

this Final Phase of emissions started at

six minutes past one on the afternoon of

Eminent 26th

all three volcanic Crests ejected

at the same time

throwing thick clouds of Cinder and smoke an

surprising 17 miles into the sky

was one of the greatest volcanic occasions

of the final few hundred a long time and it

would have been

to individuals watching it it would have

been just like the the starting of the conclusion

of the world in case you like

the control of this ejection was colossal

like a monster fly motor pointed skywards

the discuss rapidly got to be choked with tons

of thick dark fiery remains smearing out the Sun

it's a temperature since of all the

fiery remains within the climate would be smothering

and if you were exceptionally close on the for

case the west coast of java you you'd

be getting the fiery remains in your throat and

your eyes it would have been a genuine

vision of hell

and a bad dream that appeared no signs of

ending

by the another morning of Eminent 27 1883

krakatoa's three holes had been seething

for more than 14 hours

at that point at some point between 5 30 and 1002 am

the arrive was stunned by a arrangement of

four gigantic blasts

the clamor was so boisterous it may be heard

over 2 000 miles absent within the Australian

forsake close Perth

the third was the loudest recorded clamor

in history the identical to 200

megatons of TNT

thirteen thousand times the estimate of the

bomb that destroyed Hiroshima

what made this amazing blast

The Look For answers takes geologist

Charles Mandeville to the jagged island

of ricotta

this minor island is in truth a portion of

the once Forceful Krakatoa

[Music]

the record of what the spring of gushing lava did from

May 20th to Admirable 26 to 27th is here

spoken to on the islands by the

layered stores that we see protected

in the jungle

this is often a gold mine for a volcanologist

attempting to remake the occasions that

took put here since each one of

these stores tells us something

specific around what the well of lava was

doing

this pumice was tossed out of the heart

of the spring of gushing lava in 1883.

Mandeville accepts that it holds the

key to understanding the strengths that

destroyed Krakatoa

what I have in my hand may be a blended pumice

or streak pumice and what it speaks to

is that we had two magmas blending in

the conduit of the 1883 emission of

Krakatoa

the stripes are confirmation of the two sorts

of magma interior Krakatoa the lighter

band speaks to the cooler gas-rich

magma that was display amid the

prior eruption in May

this ejection as it were mostly purged the

magma chamber

by Admirable this void was filled from profound

underneath by searingly hot dull colored

magma

when these two magmas blended together it

was a deadly cocktail

the strongly warm of the dull magma

caused the colossal sums of gas within

the light magma to extend

the magma chamber that was holding this

mixed bag got to be over pressurized to the

point where it surpassed the rock

quality of the roof rocks over it and

when that happens you'll be able get truly

quick Climb of magma to the surface

when this magma detonated from the

surface

it ripped apart tons of rocks with an

ear splitting blast

this Mega blast caused the loudest

commotion in recorded history

the striped pumice on ricotta demonstrates

that magma blending was the trigger

but Krakatoa wasn't fair the loudest

spring of gushing lava in history it was a executioner

since Krakatoa itself was uninhabited

a few of the volcano's to begin with casualties were

at ketembang

a town on the southern coast of

Sumatra

but kettenbang is on the territory 20

miles from Krakatoa and isolated By the

Waters of the Sunder Straits

how these people fell casualty to the

dangerous fiery debris was a puzzle

to reveal the answers we need to return

to the scene of the wrongdoing Rakata and to

these imposing White Cliffs

they could seem part of an ancient

landscape but these 200-foot White

Cliffs were laid down in a matter of

hours

they are what's left of a raging torrent

of hot gas and rocks a unnerving drive

of nature known as a pyroclastic stream

acoustic flights travel greatly

rapidly so you can't outrun them they're

too greatly hot several hundred

degrees Centigrade so they will if

you're caught within the center of one they

will incinerate you immediately

maybe the most celebrated casualties of a

pyroclastic stream lie at Pompeii the

Roman settlement that was absolutely

destroyed amid the emission of

Vesuvius in Italy in the year 79.

the superbly protected remains of the

individuals here are Confirmation to the control

of these fiery torrential slides

but most individuals pass on not since of 100

Burns but since they inhale the gasses

which are so hot that they fair destroy

the the discuss entry within the lungs

right away and so after two breaths

you're dead

the sheer size of the Cliffs at ricotta

have led geologists to gauge that the

pyroclastic flows thrown out by Krakatoa

were in Amazing 2 800 feet tall

but the casualties of this dangerous torrent

were on the other side of the Sunday

Straits

what happened following was genuinely surprising

control classic streams are ground embracing

in other words they take after the ground

surface as they go down but they also

have a an upper part which is exceptionally wealthy

in gas so it's moo thickness presently when a

pyroclastic flows Hits the Ocean the thick

bit carries on down onto the sea bed

but the the gas rates but still exceptionally jump

it goes rushing over hurrying over

the best of the water there's for all intents and purposes

no contact between the gas and the

water so it can travel a really long

separate

over 2 000 individuals at Kevin blast perished

from the burning flotsam and jetsam that seem not

just walk on water but run at astounding

speeds of up to 200 miles per hour

across 20 miles of Open Ocean

the investigation into the Krakatoa

well of lava has pinpointed the uncommon

force that tore the island separated

striped pumice is confirmation that magma

blending made the tremendous blast

100 foot Cliffs on the island of Rakata

are prove of endless pyroclastic streams

enormous sufficient to cross the sea and claim

the volcano's to begin with casualties

but modern reports show that most

of krakatoa's victims were not killed by

these dangerous avalanches

but by an awfully distinctive drive of nature

August 1883. krakatoa's moment and most

dangerous ejection

more than 2 000 individuals were slaughtered by

searingly hot pyroclastic streams

but there was more awful to come

[Music]

these immense Boulders are on the shore

of any year in Java 22 miles absent from

Krakatoa

they are a crucial clue to what the

well of lava did here

and a stark update of what could one

day happen once more

they are made of coral which can as it were

develop submerged so a few gigantic Drive

Unleashed by Krakatoa must have put them

here

these shattered bricks are another piece

of the same perplex

they are all that stay of a beacon

that once was one of the sturdiest

buildings on the Java coastline

but no match for Krakatoa

I'm standing at the best of the unused

beacon in on-year 120 feet over ocean

level built two a long time after the ejection

of Krakatoa in 1883. the Ancient Lighthouse

down there is nothing but a trace of

bricks because it was wiped out by a

huge torrent

eyewitness accounts detail the precise

stature of this unnerving wave

difficult though it may well be to

comprehend the energy of that wave

would have taken the water up to the

level that I'm presently standing

krakatoa's passing throws had triggered a

gigantic divider of water that presently dashed

towards the shore at an year

I do not think anybody living along the

shores of Western Java or Southern

Sumatra would have known approximately the

torrent that they were almost to confront and

certainly no one would have been able to

survive those sorts of wave heights

power of the wave can be seen in this

600 ton piece of coral that was ripped

from the seabed and crushed the

beacon to pieces

still here today it gives a few of the

clearest prove of the monstrous control

of krakatoa's 1883 emission

the same wave that moved this Boulder

moreover devastated houses Villages and

transport taking off nothing but Twisted

wreckage behind

the compelling wave even picked up and

Stranded a Dutch steamer the baru twothis gigantic tidal wave claimed the lives

of more than 34 000 individuals

conceivable that those individuals who lived in

the towns in in Western Java and

Southern Sumatra thought well the

volcanoes out there Somers in Ireland so

it can't conceivably influence us here but of

course the emission itself activated the

tidal wave which implied that the water

adjoining to the spring of gushing lava was was being

uprooted right over to where they

lived so you know that that feeling of

security was was tragically lost

for cutting edge day examiners the perplex

was how Fire and Water had combined to

wipe out a complete locale

the prove came from the smashed

remains of the spring of gushing lava itself ricotta

Island portion of one of krakatoa's three

unique Crests

its sheer vertical Cliff confront tells

well of lava analysts almost krakatoa's

last moments

after you have a really huge volcanic

ejection you clear a parcel of magma it

takes off behind successfully a hole so

very frequently the hull fair collapses

down into that gap which takes off

behind what we call a Caldera

Krakatoa had shot out such endless sums

of burning magma in shake it might no

longer bolster itself

deplete absent the water and we will see how

it collapsed making an colossal Caldera

so this Cliff behind me marks the edge

of the 1883 Caldera

beneath the pontoon this water profundity is around

40 times as profound as most of the range

around us the scale of this collapse is

lovely huge it formed a Caldera that's

almost three miles within the north-south

heading by approximately five miles within the

East-West Heading

this colossal collapse has as it were happened

once in recorded human history

the combined weight and control of

krakatoa's great pyroclastic streams and

this gigantic collapse was more than enough

to trigger the torrent

[Music]

the conundrum of fair what had caused

krakatoa's colossal tsunamis had

finally been fathomed

When the Smoke had cleared and the

waters receded from the foremost obliterating

ejection in recorded history

the island of Krakatoa had vanished

in add up to Krakatoa had slaughtered 36

417 men ladies and children

it was without question one of the foremost

perilous volcanoes in history

but while exploring the 1883

emission researchers found antiquated

lava streams covered up within the wilderness and on

the seabed

this dangerous spring of gushing lava had struck some time recently

but when researchers dated the magma streams

they hit a issue

radiocarbon dating was as it were able to

put the ejection to between the primary

and 13th centuries a spread of 1200

years

[Music]

researchers required more data in

order to attempt and shed light on a modern

Krakatoa threat

made a difference the hundreds of thousands of

individuals living within the region

[Music]

the path of prove at Krakatoa had

gone cold literally

since thousands of miles absent from the

sweltering warm of Indonesia within the

Frozen wastes of the Antarctic

researchers as of late found a

basic clue to krakatoa's explosive

past

ORS barrels of ice that we penetrate from

the ice caps in in Greenland and

Antarctica in the event that you see at things like

volcanoes any fabric coming from

encompassing seas make its way to

Antarctica where able to distinguish it within the

ice

you might envision that we see the tidy

and the fiery remains from a well of lava in truth exceptionally

small of that from the enormous Indonesian

sort volcanoes ever makes it to

Antarctica

so what we do see is sulfuric corrosive a enormous

volcanoes that spew out a part of sulfur

dioxide into the atmosphere which is

oxidized into this sulfuric corrosive which

we at that point degree within the ice

the sulfuric corrosive cannot be seen in the

ice centers with the exposed eye but can

as it were be recognized back at the British

Antarctic survey's lab where the cores

are kept at a ceaseless minus 13

degrees Fahrenheit

so this is a piece of center for

Antarctica usually a bit from James

Ross Island it's almost 10 000 a long time ancient

this ice what we're doing presently is

measuring the volcanic signals and what

we see is exceptionally exceptionally particular clear

electrical beats that come from the

sulfuric corrosive from the volcanoes so very

rapidly able to see all the well of lava

signals through the other throughout the

entire center

one of the most grounded signals found in

the ice centers is from the 1883 emission

of Krakatoa

what we may say from the 1883 ejection

we can't see the cinder but we can't see a

exceptionally huge top in sulfuric corrosive in reality

it's one of the greatest Crests we've got

in the last thousand a long time it's such a

enormous peak in reality that we utilize it to date

the ice cause because it's like a

reference rise than we will see there

each ice center is like a journal of the

earth's climate each layer of ice

represents one year

within the same way that we can tally tree

rings researchers can tally back each

layer of ice to determine the precise date

of any ejection

tallying back from the 1883 flag there

may be a colossal spike within the sulfuric corrosive

levels within the year 535.

this can be clear evidence of an enormous

ejection amid the dying days of the

Roman Realm an emission distant more noteworthy

than krakatoa's in 1883.

we are presently starting to come to the

conclusion that yes there was a expansive

volcanic ejection in 535 in truth it

looks one of the greatest ones on the

record in terms of how much sulfuric

corrosive it put into the air

the ice centers tell us a part around this

mystery volcano its ejection was so

enormous that its impact was worldwide

its date Falls precisely within the center of

the time span of the magma streams around

Rakata

seem it be Krakatoa

the clues appear to fit if they are the

same eruption this is often prove that

Krakatoa has a far more dangerous past

ually a distant more dangerous future

can we tell whether it's come from

Krakatoa that's more troublesome we can't

say it in Antarctica and we can't see it

in Greenland so that tells us it was

likely some place mid-latitude so

some place around almost the equator maybe

so it's plausibility but we cannot truly

pin it down at the minute

despite this vulnerability there is no

question of krakatoa's capacity for

Annihilation

the Steep Cliffs at ricotta appear that

Krakatoa collapsed to create an colossal

Caldera activating a dangerous torrent

and however ice centers from Antarctica

recommend that Krakatoa may have detonated

some time recently with even more Constrain than 1883.

to find what initially made not

only 1883 Krakatoa but moreover the current

anakrakatau scientists will have to be

travel indeed advance back in time some 2

million a long time

the source of krakatoa's amazing control

remained a puzzle to scientists for

centuries

one clue is its location

Indonesia contains more volcanoes than

anywhere else on Earth

Indonesia is a big stake for

volcanologists essentially because the

prove of volcanic centers that may

have endured a few million a long time are

available and ready for observation and

consider

inconceivably there are 21 of these fire

mountains on the island of Jabba alone

an zone the same size as Unused York State

the national stop of Tanga bromo in East

Java is one of Indonesia's most active

volcanic zones

to see a scene like this is

really lowering since it tells us

that there are powers at work that distant

surpass anything that mankind can

develop

but why there ought to be so numerous

volcanoes in such a little region no one

could clarify

[Music]

a key Disclosure was that Indonesia lies

adjacent to the infamous Ring of Fire a

chain of volcanoes extending around the

entire Pacific Sea

[Music]

within the 1950s American geologist Harry

Hess started Inquire about into the

groundbreaking theory known as

seafloor spreading

this laid the foundation for plate

tectonics

plate tectonics is based on the idea

that our planet is not a perfect and

unbroken circle it's composed of eight

major structural plates that jossel and

jolt against one another

these plates are driven by heat from the

planet's center

here in Indonesia the plates collide

faster than almost anyplace else on

Soil

the volcanoes here are made when the

heavier oceanic plate is pushed under

the lighter Mainland Shake

this can be subduction

when the rock is pushed more profound it dissolves

to deliver magma

over thousands of a long time it builds up

into a tremendous magma chamber numerous miles

underneath the surface of the Earth

inevitably the weight of the additional

magma gets to be as well extraordinary for the Earth's

outside the magma forces its way up to the

surface in A Storm of hot ash and

boiling lava

a spring of gushing lava is born

in the case of Indonesia this is a

country developed nearly totally from

volcanoes

most of Indonesia is in truth composed of

volcanoes that initiated from some place

down below sea level rose up to sea

level and then grew as islands and

Amalgamated to create greater arrive masses

that presently include the Indonesian Nation

using the theory of plate tectonics

researchers can rewind the clock

45 million a long time prior the Australian

plate begun to move north quickly

the island chain of Indonesia started to

develop from the ocean at the point where

the two plates collided

tremendous numbers of volcanoes exploded as

the Australian plate was pushed profound

into the bowels of the Soil

Krakatoa was a item of these same

powers

and it was two million a long time back as our

early human predecessors were taking their

to begin with tentative steps that the well of lava

was made

so the reality that Under the Sun The

Straits of Indonesia you have all these

forms taking put 70 and 80 miles

down underneath the surface made it

unavoidable that a volcano like Krakatoa

came into presence

but moreover had a disastrous emission

what made Krakatoa so much more

perilous than hundreds of other

volcanoes in Indonesia only became clear

in 1988.

researchers discovered that large

clusters of seismic tremors were taking

place beneath the Sunder Straits

earthquakes are common along plate

boundaries but this sum was off the

charts

this major clue would enable scientists

to at long last identify the killer figure in

Krakatoa

underneath Krakatoa in the center of the

Sunda Straits the subduction zone

contains a kink this turns and tears the

Earth's hull and provides indeed more

fabric to fuel krakatoa's hungry magma

chamber

where you've got those Crimps

two things could happen firstly there

could be a more prominent chance of seismic tremors

since the Wrinkle itself really begins

to tear or tear and furthermore where the

Kink is might create more softening and

it's the melting that takes place in the

mantle that eventually leads to the

larvas that emitted from the volcanoes

at the surface

at long last the roots of Krakatoa had been

uncovered

hundreds of volcanoes in Indonesia appear

that the country lies on a volatile

plate boundary

unusually high numbers of shudders appear

that Krakatoa lies on a deadly Kink

inside this Zone

scientists presently utilize this knowledge to

predict krakatoa's future

a forecast that's nowadays more

critical than ever

since the well of lava is back and it's

getting greater every day

[Music]

[Music]

nowadays these smashed islands are all

that remain of the cataclysmic 1883

Krakatoa eruption

but a more profound understanding of this event

is now more imperative than ever

since out in the Straits a modern danger

is developing

Krakatoa is back within the shape of anak

krakatau Indonesian for child of

Krakatoa

which child is presently an irate youngster

Like a Phoenix From the Fiery remains anak

krakatau is growing directly over the

location of the original Krakatoa spring of gushing lava

leading researchers to conclude it's

being bolstered by the same magma chamber profound

underneath the Sunda Straits

this dangerous Legacy implies that anak

may possibly be one of the foremost

unsafe volcanoes on Earth

but fair how immediate is this threat

since its dangerous Beginnings in 1927

anak has ejected habitually and

brutally

as one of the quickest developing volcanoes

on the planet this 1033 foot tall

mountain bears observing

anticipating precisely when another major

ejection will happen is difficult but

there are Clues

underground tremors are a beyond any doubt sign that

the magma deep inside the volcano is

starting to move

we have seismometers stationed on the

spring of gushing lava that tell us when rocks are

breaking not fair at the vent but within the

subsurface

proclaiming the arrival of unused new magma

into the structure into the cone

points of interest are transmitted through radio

signals to the checking station on the

mainland which has worked 24 hours a

day

they have a straightforward scale to degree the

danger running from one to five

anything over a three and they go on

Ruddy Alarm

at the minute it's floating around the

danger zone a level three

the sort of magma inside the volcano is

another way geologists can judge the

potential of a major eruption

but the magma itself is inconceivable to

test as it lies several miles profound

inside the Earth

the another best clue is to look at what

has been truly tossed out of the

spring of gushing lava

magma bombs

I've got my hand on a basaltic andesite

scoria bomb that was probably blown out

of occasion approximately three quarters of a mile

from here and you can envision to be hit

by one of these would not be a great

circumstance these can actually range up to

things that are the measure of

fridges and tv sets and

they're in this manner making them indeed more

lethal particularly when they're

traveling at 120 miles an hour

Mandeville analyzes these rocks made up

of basaltic andesite which will give him

a clue to the makeup of the magma profound

underground

portion of what this composition tells me

is the composition of magmas being

ejected at anarch are not at all like what was

ordinarily erupted at the 1883 ejection

of Krakatoa which was much more silica

rich and much lighter in color typically

Light Beige to Almost White

the more silica in the magma the more

gooey or sticky it is

and that's what contributed to

krakatoa's explosive eruption in 1883. the hazardous gasses were caught within the

magma and weight had been building up

over time

luckily the dull color of the magma

bombs from anaka krakatau are prove

that the magma is moo in silica

and the unstable gasses have however to

reach basic 1883 levels

but this can be not a changeless state

over the a long time a magma like this will in

reality advance into something that was that

unstable

as anak krakatau develops the magma will

certainly ended up thicker and stickier

as in its parent once the magma gets as well

sticky the vent seem ended up blocked

the quiet may flag calamity

it implies that weight may be building

up interior as well much weight and

Indonesia seem endure another

cataclysmic blast

more than 100 A long time of Examination

into Krakatoa has made a difference open the

insider facts of its past

given researchers with solid prove

that anak krakatau is taking after in its

strides

the pumice from 1883 recommends that

Krakatoa was a dangerous strata spring of gushing lava

the stripes within the pumice appear that the

gigantic 1883 eruption was activated by

an infusion of super hot magma

it was this that blew the spring of gushing lava to

Pieces

[Music]

the remains of tremendous pyroclastic streams

that were over twice the tallness of the

Realm State Building

also the colossal Caldera appear the

massive scale of krakatoa's 1883

ejection

but most forebodingly of all the position

of anak krakatau close the dangerous Ring of

Fire specifically over a crimp within the

subduction zone implies that a future

gigantic emission is unavoidable

a parcel of the anak Krakatoa movement that

we presently witness nowadays is really nearly

a continuation of the volcanic action

that took put back in 1883 we seem

have another emission here on the scale

of the 1883 emission of Krakatoa

the 1883 ejection of Krakatoa may be the

most famous but it could be a topographical

certainty that it won't be the final

Krakatoa is on the rise once more

Energetic verification that the Soil is never at

rest

Soil

a four and a half billion year ancient

planet

still advancing

landmasses move and Clash

volcanoes emit and Icy masses develop and

retreat the Earth's outside is carved in

various and quick ways

clearing out a path of topographical Secrets

behind

in this scene the 450 million year ancient

topographical history of New York City is

investigated a city scarred with

unusual rocks

frequented by Impressions of antiquated monster

reptiles

in line with a tremendous window ornament of

set magma

researchers examine the prove for

searing volcanoes

gigantic surges

and ice sheets four times as tall as the

Domain State Building

the clues to understanding Unused York

City's geological past gives a window

into the arrangement of the Soil itself

outside

the examination into Unused York City's

geographical history starts here

with Manhattan's Rough outcrops

rocks are Clues to how the arrive was made

and how its geography made a difference it ended up a

thick flourishing throbbing City

they're scattered all over Manhattan

jabbing through the surface of parks and

through the concrete between the

buildings

a few squashed between two loft

squares are the estimate of a whale

they are the exceptional survivors of

old times

most imperatively they are the surface

tips of the bedrock in which Manhattan's

buildings are secured

[Praise]

gigantic skyscrapers stand in two

clusters in downtown and Midtown

within the area between the buildings are

lower

the clues to the shape of Manhattan's

commonplace Horizon are the Rocks underneath

the surface

a driving master on the rocks in Unused

York is geologist Charles magarian

the whole history of the development of

the Earth's hull is decorated in the

Rocks underneath us the Rocks here in Unused

York City Harbor and family line that dates

back over a billion a long time of time

magarian is searching for evidence to

appear how the city's Bedrock was made

[Commendation]

at Inwood Slope Stop in Upper Manhattan

he's found an greatly difficult piece of

the Bedrock known as Manhattan schist

to the untrained eye it's fair a piece

of Shake

but to magarian this can be his to begin with clue

the rocks that we're looking at right

here are rocks of the Manhattan schist

arrangement and these rocks are exceptionally

seriously twisted and the structures

here in this shake may be a structure that

comes up like this twists around and

comes back down on itself as such and in

three-dimensional view it's a structure

that looks something like this a really

exceptionally tight crease with a dive towards

the South here

these are rocks that were exceptionally exceptionally

strongly deformed over extended

periods of time and it's the same

Bedrock that happens over much of Unused

York City

this tight overlap within the Rocks proposes

Modern York's Bedrock was formed beneath

awesome weight

to affirm this hunch magarian takes a

test to the lab for nitty gritty investigation

radiometric dating demonstrates this shake is

approximately 450 million years ancient

The Shake has indeed more noteworthy privileged insights to

tell

it contains a kaleidoscope of minerals

which opens a window into the antiquated

world to me minerals are like the

instrument cluster in your car they tell

you everything almost how your car is

running

[Music]

agarion employments a magnifying instrument with polarized

light to see the minerals

examination tells us the previous depth

regime How Profound The Rocks were they tell

you the age of the Rocks they tell you

everything you want to know almost the

advancement of the Earth's outside

what's striking almost these samples is

that the minerals interior are stretched

it could be a clue that these rocks must once

have been pulverized by Enormous strengths

and the colors support this Hypothesis

beneath the polarized light the sample

from Inwood Slope Stop appears up blue

this comes from a mineral called kyanite

which shapes at Incredible profundities

its conclusive prove that this rock

was compressed profound beneath the surface

rocks fashioned at these profundities are much

harder

perfect for a city's establishments

but what immense weight was on beat

magarian believes there's as it were one

reply

The Shake was once buried beneath the

crushing weight of a chain of gigantic

mountains

the minerals that we discover within the Bedrock

units of Modern York City

tell us that the rocks of Modern York City

were once in the past buried when they were

shaped beneath very high weights

which those Tall weights demonstrate

that these rocks formally were created

at profundities of 20 to 25 miles and likely

the mountains were as high as the Alps

are nowadays

but indeed the foremost noteworthy Mountain

chains can survive the ravages of time

the Rough Mountains for case millions

of a long time back they soared about six

miles into the sky today disintegration has

split their estimate

[Music]

the same prepare happened in Unused York

rain wind and Ice War the old

mountains nearly level

but the tiny gems found in

the Shake in Manhattan affirm that they

existed within the past

did the mountains form

the reply lies within the way the Earth's

hull moves

a organize of interlocking person

pieces makes up the Earth's surface

geologists call them tectonic plates

over millions of a long time they Collide and

break apart to frame diverse landmasses

450 million a long time prior the Earth's

surface looked totally diverse

North America was much advance to the

South

North America was tilted 90 degrees

clockwise from its present introduction

and it was straddling the equator as

such the climate was tropical the east

coast of North America was truly

experiencing Club Med conditions

the climate may have been great

antiquated east coast was heading for

inconvenience

the plate underneath it was moving

the East Coast was on a collision course

with old West Africa

450 million a long time prior they collided

the impact Unleashed geographical chaos

beneath strongly compression the arrive was

constrained upwards to create a taking off run

of mountains the Collision that took

put is the most fundamental and

noteworthy mountain building occasion to

influence the east coast of North America

All That Remains are their stumps

stumps that form the Bedrock a advanced

day Unused York

the Collision that built up the ancient

mountains moreover collapsed the Bedrock into

plunges and Rises

these folds are dependable for the

shape of Manhattan horizon

the city gloats two clusters of

high rises in downtown and Midtown

here the hard Bedrock that shaped deep

underground was forced up it is presently

near to the surface and provides solid

Anchorage for the high-rise buildings

within the dip within the center The Rock was

collapsed down

the area is filled with free dregs

less appropriate for high rises

when the Bedrock is at the Earth's

surface where it's really uncovered at that point

it's pretty easy to construct tall buildings

because you'll root them specifically into

Solid Rock be that as it may in zones where the

Bedrock is profound and secured by frosty

sediment in those cases it's very

troublesome to construct 12 buildings since

you require to root those buildings either

into strong shake or construct concrete

projections both caissons that can bolster

tall buildings

Unused York's profound history is starting to

take shape

building up from Modest gems in the

Rock scientists revealed how Unused York's

Bedrock was shaped beneath the crushing

weight of a gigantic antiquated mountain

run the result was difficult Manhattan

schist a culminate establishment for the

city's high rises

but Modern York City still had a long way

to go

the colliding plates made an colossal

arrive mass the last great supercontinent

called Pangea

Modern York was presently trapped in the center

but by one means or another it made it back to the coast

past the city's streets is prove of

tremendous volcanic ejections mass terminations

and continents torn into pieces

clues that may clarify how Unused York

got to be one of the world's incredible Sea

cities

[Music]

agents are piecing together how

Unused York City's special topography was

formed

much of its early victory could be a exchange and

commerce Center is owed to its profound

water Harbor

and its location at the coast

[Music]

but 450 million years prior things were

different

the range of Unused York City was landlocked

inserted within the heart of a gigantic

supercontinent

how did it get to the coast

the examination quick advances 250

million a long time

in a quarry in Modern Shirt 25 miles

Northeast of Manhattan paleontologist

Paul Olsen Unearthed the primary of a

string of clues that seem clarify how

Unused York City reached the coast

a monster fossilized impression

this is the footprint really the mud

that filled in the impression of a

four-footed crocodile relative that was

the prevailing carnivore amid the late

Triassic you can see the toes here have

small cushions on them and here's the

handprint and these animals would have

been in this case approximately the measure of a

humble crocodile but a few of them got to be

much much bigger the measure indeed of a

T-Rex

[Music]

um

the footprints are from a huge

crocodile-like animal called pasta

sukis

to begin with showed up on the Earth around 230

million a long time prior

at that point some 30 million a long time afterward its

Impressions all of a sudden vanished

but pasta sukis wasn't alone

half of all land creatures perished at the

the fossil prove demonstrates it to be one

of the greatest mass terminations ever

recorded

the prove for this mass termination is

that we have parcels and parts of fossils

right in this zone and what you see is

particularly within the within the reptile

Impressions you see one bunch of shapes

the shapes that are related to

crocodilians vanish

anything cause the mass termination must

have been a disastrous occasion

Olsen had a hunch that the mass

termination was by one means or another related to Unused

York's return to the coast

the old zone of Unused York sat on a

line of awesome shortcoming

a plate boundary where two landmasses

joined to create the supercontinent Pangea

and it was unsteady inclined to seismic tremors

and volcanoes

Olson's journey to discover the prove for

the common catastrophe that wrapped up off

post-asuka's 200 million years ago

a band of dull Shake over the impressions

within the New Jersey Quarry caught his eye

it was Basalt The Smoking Weapon Olsen was

seeking out for

Basalt may be a volcanic shake

it shapes when hot magma ejects onto the

surface and cools

did the volcanoes that manufactured this

Basalt trigger the mass termination and

too tear Pangea separated

on its claim

the prove that the Quarry was

unconvincing

the layer of Basalt is as it were a number of feet

thick

demonstrate Mass magma streams caused this Worldwide

catastrophe researchers required

demonstrative prove

goodness

tall over the Hudson Waterway geologist

Matt Gutting takes after another lead

he's considering the Palisades a sensational

geologic include that embraces the Hudson

Waterway starting over mid-manhattan and

running into Northeast Unused Shirt

they as well are made of basaltic rock the

same Shake embroiled within the mass

termination of arrive creatures

but the Palisades are on an inside and out

diverse scale

the Palisades are a sheet of basaltic

magma around one thousand feet thick it's

about 40 miles long so it's an awfully

noticeable set of cliffs that run all the

way up the west side of the Hudson Waterway

here is verification of enormous volcanic

action

overwhelmed out of bursts within the Earth's

hull and secured old North America

in a gentle profound sheet

the magma split because it cooled

the vertical cracks shaped normal

pencil-shaped columns

these distinctive rock formations have

been known to geologists since the 19th

century

intriguingly they show up on both sides

of the Atlantic in North and South

America Europe and Africa

geologists suspected that their nearness

pointed to the spot where Africa and

Europe isolated from America

but that was fair an problematic Hypothesis

until the 1950s when researchers

created a progressive strategy

called paleomagnetism

presently they may ponder the magnetic

properties of rocks

numerous rocks counting Basalt have a

unmistakable attractive signature

shaped as The Shake is born

minor precious stones interior the shake act like

Compass needles

when the magma that shapes the shake is

fluid the gems align to the Earth's

attractive field indicating North

as The Shake sets the precious stones

freeze forever locked in that fixed

magnetic arrangement

as landmasses move and the Rocks travel

the crystals end up indicating in a

diverse heading than North

Gutting and his group examine the

attractive signature of the Palisades

[Praise]

to urge a test they bore into the Shake

with a water-cooled drill

they measure the precise introduction of

the gems nowadays with a compass

when they counterbalanced this perusing with

Attractive North they can calculate the

unique area of The Rock

one of the energetic things that you simply can

do with this shake is you'll take it

back within the lab and degree its attractive

introduction which attractive

introduction will be when this shake

crystallize or set 200 million

a long time back so this shake would have

minerals that would be pointing in a few

other direction other than North nowadays

when researchers compared the attractive

introduction of the Palisades with the

other Basalt outcrops around the

Atlantic they found they shaped at

around the same scope

not as it were did the rocks have the same age

they were moreover born at the same area

for example 200 million a long time back Modern

York and Morocco were Neighbors

geologists had all the confirmation they needed

they might presently certainly piece

together what happened

with a worldwide volcanic fiasco

approximately 200 million years ago North

American Africa started to pull apart from

each other

there were tremendous magma outpourings

these magma streams ejected along exceptionally long

breaks within the Earth's outside that would

have produced Fountains of magma

expanding thousands and thousands of

feet into the air

they're covered an nearly unfathomably

expansive zone

roughly 4 million square miles

from Southwestern France

Southwestern Brazil

from New York to Central Mali in Africa

this zone was secured in ponded magma

streams that in a few places finished up being

about a mile thick

technician ejections driven to Taking off

temperatures

half of the plants and animals died

postasuchus didn't stand a chance

as colossal powers tore Pangea separated a

monster ocean shaped between the separating

arrive masses

the Atlantic Sea

the city of New York was presently at the

coast

[Music]

200 million year ancient Impressions underneath

a layer of Basalt and the Palisades

towering above the Hudson

give prove that Pangea part separated

to form the east coast of North

America

story of Modern York City was distant from over

after being built by fire the locale was

about to be overcome by another

dangerous constrain

scientists are piecing together the

story of Modern York's violent geological

past

250 million years prior the Atlantic Sea

opened up leaving the zone of Unused York

on the coast

but the oceanic City still had a long

way to go

[Music]

there was no profound Hudson Stream Channel

it was nothing but a little stream

what strengths changed it into the wide

waterway able of carrying overwhelming

Vessels far inland

a clue to how the Hudson Valley was

made is the interesting Boulders that are

scattered throughout Manhattan's Central

Stop

some of them weigh a few tons

but they're strangers to these parts

completely not at all like the encompassing rocks

geologist Charles magarian examines

where they came from

Boulder could be a boulder from the Palisade

sheet on the other side of the Hudson in

New Jersey

you can see it's exceptionally pleasantly cleaned

compositionally it's completely diverse

than the encompassing Bedrock which is

Manhattan schist and the Manhattan

schist here is exceptionally wealthy in Mica this

shake has no light-colored Mica in it

at all

the Palisade sheet is found to the

west and north of us

for 40 miles along the Hudson Stream

something gigantically powerful must have

moved the boulders such a extraordinary remove

magarian knows the reply is ice

researchers have taken note a comparative

wonder four thousand miles absent in

the Swiss Alps

ice sheets crush their way over the

landscape they gouge out lumps of shake

and carry them along in the base of the

ice

these rocks act like sandpaper and carve

out deep scratches

when the ice dissolves it takes off the

boulders behind

[Music]

magarian is persuaded the same thing

happened in Central Stop

ice moved the Palisade Boulders and

carved out grooves in the Bedrock

underneath

this Bedrock presentation in Central Park

shows the profound effects of glaciation

in the form of these marvelous frigid

grooves that move up the outcrop and

appear this design where icy masses snatched

huge Boulders and those tremendous Boulders

acted like instruments to deliver these

scratches

to magarian the rocks in Central Park

are compelling prove that New York

once was secured in ice

over millions of a long time developing and

retreating ice has more than once turned North

America into a frozen wild

but the grooves on the rocks in Modern York

do not tell the complete story

annihilation caused by the ice focuses to

a immense frosty event that would

overshadow long run City

discover out the extent of the ice magarian

traveled to Bear Mountain a few 50 miles

north of Unused York City

once more the clue was within the rocks

he found frigid marks comparative to those

in Central Stop

what we're looking at here are chatter

marks chatter marks are exceptionally demonstrative

highlights of frigid disintegration they're

produced by Boulders embedded in the

base of a thick sheet of glacial ice

those Boulders encroached on this Bedrock

surface cleaning it smoothing it off

and after that culling pieces of shake off as

the glacial ice moved over with the

boulders inserted in the base

the gouges within the Rocks might cruel just

one thing the ice sheet must have been

thousands of feet thick

in this case in spite of the fact that we're standing at

an rise of around 1280 feet over

ocean level the glacial ice sheet secured

uncovered Mountain as on the off chance that it weren't indeed

there

researchers have found indistinguishable chatter

marks on adjacent Peaks up to a mile above

ocean level

it was unmistakable confirmation a ice sheet at

slightest one mile thick ground its way

over these mountains

did this same ice sheet too plow

through Central Stop

another adjacent shake face provided the

answer

the highlight that we're looking at here

are a arrangement of subparallel frosty

scratches and grooves these are once more

are produced by the frosty ice sheet

Mythical beast Boulders over this exceptionally durable

Rock surface it's kind of polished

the surface and in addition it's

delivered these or maybe unobtrusive uh but but

but self-evident when the lighting is right

striae or grooves within the Bedrock presently on the off chance that

we measure the introduction of these

these uh

these come out almost North 20 degrees

west fair almost indistinguishable in introduction

to the stri that we degree at Central

Stop

it's critical evidence that the ice

sheet that secured Bear Mountain moreover

streamed over the surface of Central Stop

proof that Modern York City was secured by

a ice sheet four times higher than the

Domain State Building

fair envision cold ice a tremendous thick

ice sheet over a mile thick applying

colossal weight on the surface and

chiseling the surface into the scene

that we see nowadays

the ice sheets crushing weight bulldozed

everything in its way and cut through

the remains of the old mountains

some time recently the ice arrived the Waters of the

Hudson River had delicately cut down through

the scene to create a v-shaped valley

but a mild thick Glacier takes no

detainees

it gouged out the sides within the foot of

the river valley and turned it into a

U-shaped riverbed

the Hudson River was presently traversable for

big ships

the picture of present day day New York was

nearly total

long grooves in the rocks and Central

Stop appeared researchers that a endless ice

sheet flowed over the disintegrated remains of

these mountains and marks and cold

striations on Bear Mountain proved this

ice sheet was at slightest four times higher

than the Domain State Building

the ice melted it cleared out a vast Ridge of

debris blocking the Hudson Waterway from

the Atlantic

the last challenge for geologists was

to find out how the edge was destroyed

and how Modern York's Harbor opened to the

oceans

[Music]

[Music]

Unused York nowadays gloats one of the biggest

common Harbors within the world

but it wasn't always that way

towards the conclusion of the final ice age the

port's wide entrance was blocked

sixteen thousand a long time ago the melting

ice sheets cleared out behind a 220 foot tall

divider of flotsam and jetsam

the ridge extended from Long Island to

Staten Island and constrained the Hudson

stream through a narrow more Westerly

course to the ocean

[Music]

what effective strengths devastated this rock

stick

the prime suspect was a flash flood

but researchers required prove to demonstrate

that such a flood had happened

in the 1960s anglers made an

startling discover at the mouth of the

Hudson River

they dug up a mammoth mammoth tusk

from the profundities of the ocean floor

[Music]

crowds of these giant beasts wandered The

Plains of North America some time recently they

got to be terminated at the conclusion of the final

ice age

finding the odd mammoth tusk here and

there is not so astounding

but since the beginning Revelation

researchers have found hundreds more

tusks and bones in the mouth of the

Hudson River

it was as in spite of the fact that a rough downpour swept

the mammoths absent and dumped their

remains off the coast

and there were more clues adjacent

huge Boulders resting on the sandy sea

floor

a few of them as big as cars

The Boulders must have been portion of the

ancient Moraine that once ran between

Long Island and Staten Island

geologist David franzi knows that as it were a

seething downpour could have moved them

based on the estimate of the boulders that

we see here

we know that that surge must have

release on the arrange of 1.5 million

cubic feet per moment

that's three times bigger than the

biggest Mississippi Stream surge ever

recorded

and all that water had to come from

somewhere

researchers started trying to find the source

of this surge a flood powerful enough to

transport gigantic Boulders all the way to

the Ocean

rocks to a geologists are like pages in

a history book for us

erosion oftentimes tears a few of the

pages out of our history book so it's

the work of the geologist to put together

a fragmentary record into a coherent

history of the events that happened in

the past

300 miles north of the city in Upstate

Modern York free for all tracked what might have

been the flood's way to an bizarre

Grove of trees on Covey Slope in the

Adirondack Mountains

the trees are Jack Pines

they are uncommon in this zone where the

soil is as a rule rich and profound

[Music]

but on Covey Hill their presence appears

that there's no more than many inches

of soil on best of the Bedrock

the Jack Pine is basically rooted

right on the top of the shake surface

here this is often a uncovered Sandstone surface

very little mineral soil and it's

subject to delayed periods of dryness

amid the late spring Jack Pine's

adjustments make it able to survive here

where no other tree species can

[Music]

what happened to the soil

the Jack Pines continue to develop at the

entrance of a long Gorge over 300 feet

wide

as a rule Gorges like this are cut down

over thousands of years but in this case

the missing topsoil focuses to a sudden

flood occasion

a seething deluge must have ripped absent

the soil and cut deep into the Shake

in a helicopter craze follows the gorge

West

inevitably it opens into a vast purge

Bowl found next to one of the Awesome

Lakes Lake Ontario

extend of the creative energy here to

envision this Valley 

the seismic tremor in 2001 is the primary

seismic tremor that we may certainly

find in Manhattan that's its claim to

popularity it was felt broadly

it's inconceivable to ponder the cause of

the Tremors at the surface

the prove is buried underneath the city

inside Unused York's Bedrock seismologist

Leonardo sieber thinks about the cause of

these shudders

remote

burrow 100 feet underneath the Bedrock

under the East Stream there's a

ready-made Research facility

here sieber can think about the Rocks up near

and individual

same Bedrock Manhattan is built on

but sieber fears it isn't as strong as

once was thought

Modern York zone

is considered a seismic Zone meaning

there's a cluster of known seismic tremors

that have happened in this setting so we

are a geologists that are energetic to

find which deficiencies are capable

for these seismic tremors

the larger part of seismic tremors happen at the

boundaries between partitioned segments of

the Earth's hull the structural plates on

which the landmasses sit

but Modern York's seismic tremors are diverse

the city is solidly in the center of a

structural plate midway between the

Mid-Atlantic Edge to the East and the

San Andreas blame to the West

um

sieber is on edge to find what's

going on

as he analyzes the dividers of the burrow

he comes over a conceivable clue

the long breaks within the Shake are blame

lines that shaped when weight built up

as the pressure was discharged the shake

cracked and shifted

this is often felt on the surface as an

seismic tremor this can be an case of an awfully

little blame

but may be a blame that likely did

create a few little seismic tremors when one

of these wrong created seismic tremors

we think that perhaps other issues of

the same family can produce seismic tremors

these deficiencies in Modern York's Bedrock are

prove that the zone was hit by

seismic tremors within the past

Eber has no way of knowing in the event that the flaws

are still dynamic and perilous

on the off chance that a huge seismic tremor hit Modern York nowadays

the results would be disastrous

a expansive extent of Modern York City

buildings are basically not built to

withstand seismic tremor shaking

we stress approximately Transportation burrows in

specific burrows that Navigate Streams

where portion of the burrows are established in

Strong Shake and other parts are resting

on delicate dregs the swaying of

these two diverse materials may

cause severe cracking and breaking

the foundation would be seriously

harmed it would take tens of a long time to

repair the harm caused by such a large

occasion

the prove geologists have collected

the story of the creation of New York

City can presently be told

Bedrock was shaped beneath a chain of

mountains over a mile tall

volcanoes and magma Areas over millions

of square miles part up the old

supercontinent and made the east

coast of North America

frigid ice four times as tall as the

Domain State Building carved out the

Profound Hudson Waterway

a disastrous streak surge broke through

the Moraine to create the Limits and

opened up Unused York City's Harbor to the

seas

looking ahead to the distant future

geologists see more challenging times

for the city

in 40 000 a long time they foresee this locale

will be inundated by another ice sheet

and in 250 million a long time the Atlantic

will begin to shrivel once more

Europe and Africa will inevitably crash

back into the American Coast

the fossilized remains of the once extraordinary

city of Unused York will ended up fair

another layer of rock in a tremendous modern

mountain range

a reference within the gigantic ever-changing

story of planet Soil

Soil a 4.5 billion year old Planet

still advancing

as landmasses move and Clash

volcanoes eject

icy masses develop and retreat

the Earth's outside is carved in various

and captivating ways

clearing out a path of geographical Secrets

behind

in this episode Loch Ness within the

highlands of Scotland is investigated

it holds more water than any other Lake

in Britain

with a Bedrock containing a few of the

most seasoned rocks on the planet

in a scene that was once portion of

America Loch Ness is a lake with an

persevering myth

the Loch Ness Beast

a group of researchers explore how

Loch Ness was made

Clues they reveal moreover give a window

into the arrangement of the Soil itself

[Music]

profound dim and full of Secret

typically Loch Ness within the good countries of

Scotland for a thousand a long time there have

been claims that this endless Lake hides a

strange and loathsome mystery the mythical

Loch Ness Monster

a legendary Beast suggested by a few as a

descendant of the dinosaurs which once

meandered this portion of Scotland

Loch Ness would be the culminate stowing away

put for a ancient beast at 23

miles long and a mile wide this tremendous

freshwater lake covers the same area as

Modern York's Manhattan Island

its more than 700 feet profound

but the creature isn't the only mystery

that surrounds Loch Ness

within the Slopes over the bolt there's a

sort of shake whose root perplexed

researchers for a long time

it's a sandstone and it's the begin of

the investigation into how Loch Ness was

made

it's known as the ancient ruddy sandstone and

it's given that title since it's ruddy

and it's a sandstone and it's called Ancient

since it's approximately 350 million a long time ancient

chuckles

the ancient ruddy Sandstone runs down one side

of Loch Ness

but the foremost astounding truth about

these rocks isn't their age but where

they come from these rocks really

belong to my country of North America

because these rocks started on the

North American landmass and then have

isolated from North America but numerous

ways typically nearly a small bit of domestic

for me here in Scotland

but how do geologists know that this ancient

red Sandstone comes from three thousand

miles away on the other side of the

Atlantic Sea

these rocks are indistinguishable in age and

character to the rocks that really

shape the Catskill Mountains and so this

portion of Scotland had a place to

Northeastern North America

remote for more than a thousand a long time

ancient ruddy Sandstone has been used for

building castles in this portion of

Scotland

but it's moreover been quarried within the U.S

and utilized for Brownstone buildings in Modern

York City

[Music]

beneath the magnifying lens rocks from both

landmasses have an indistinguishable gem

structure and chemical analysis has moreover

proved that they're precisely the same age

how did part of America conclusion up on the

shores of Loch Ness

to reply this crucial address the

examination must go much further back

in time to see for prove within the

ancient Bedrock of Northern Scotland

it's here that the story of Loch Ness

starts

the path begins north of Loch Ness

where the Bedrock comes to the surface

this scene is full of the

uncommon secrets of an

unimaginably ancient past

it's made of a sort of shake called

lewisian decent

[Music]

recent Boring and Blasting for a unused

street cut have uncovered prove which

reveals an astounding chapter in Earth's

history

the long straight lines of the bore

gaps cleared out within the shake confront

advanced radioisotope dating has given

geologists the primary clue to

understanding the beginning and arrangement

of these rocks

these rocks are exceptionally uncommon to

geologists they're some of the exceptionally

most seasoned rocks within the world we see them in

very few places maybe a dozen places

across the globe contain rocks of this

age talking about two and a half to

three billion years old

the beginning of the gray Lucian nice lies

in the first outside that cooled on the

surface of the Earth

after its arrangement 4.5 billion years

prior parts of this hull were blended

in conjunction with the most punctual silt

shifted re-melted and constrained back up

once more and once more for more than a billion

years

these exceptional rocks are the result

of that obliterating period in our

planet's history

and there's more prove uncovered in

this street cut uncovering pivotal

data approximately the early history of

the Loch Ness locale this presentation

contains three imperative pieces of

geographical jigsaw confuse to begin with we have

the gray nice 2.5 to 3 billion a long time ancient

besides we have this dark molten

fabric which has been interfered into

the region

this can be two billion a long time ancient

and thirdly we have this pink granitic

interruption that both intrudes the dark

material and the nice and this is 1.8

billion a long time ancient

[Music]

this prove uncovers that after the

formation of the Louisiana decent much

younger rocks were then melted and blended

into the ancient crust

but this handle took an mind blowing

length of time

what we've got here are rocks that

record over a billion a long time of Soil

history now to put that into viewpoint

that's nearly a quarter of the age of

the Soil recorded in this exposure

this is often the Bedrock of Loch Ness it

carries an exceptional story of a

major portion of Earth's history

and there are however more insider facts covered up in

these rocks

it looks exceptionally much since of the

temperatures and weights that these

rocks were beneath that they've been to

depths of perhaps 50 miles underneath the

earth's surface in the past this

recommends that these rocks have been to

Hell and back two or three occasions

over a billion year period

geologists presently know that the only Force

effective sufficient to create this

uncommon mix of rocks is plate

tectonics

[Music]

plate tectonics is the method by which

the monster plates of the Earth's crust

are driven gradually across the planet's

surface by endless convection currents profound

within the earth's hot mantle

in the Loch Ness region the prove in

the street cut reveals that incredible

weights Constrain the hull profound down into

the Soil where it was liquefied twisted

blended together at that point at last brought back

to the surface

after that for another billion a long time

this antiquated arrive mass quietly dissolved

down to a unpleasant rolling scene

but this wasn't the green landscape we see

presently there was much less oxygen in the

Earth's climate than nowadays and the

surface would have looked like a lunar

scene destroy and sterile

incredibly remnants of that billion year

ancient landscaper still protected today

the clues are uncovered in another road

cut where the prepared eye can draw

amazing conclusions from what looks like

a clutter of rocks

at this road cut we are able see Louisiana

nice which is between two and a half and

three billion a long time ancient

but up here we have something totally

diverse in case I go up to this level and

look over it we have horizontally

bedded ruddy sandstones

this Sudden Alter in shake type helps to

unravel the puzzle covered up in these

ancient arrangements

they're accepted to have been laid down

in a mainland environment by Streams

we've got stream frameworks that laid down

horizontally had relations with sedimentary rocks on

an old scene

so this straightforward outcrop reveals that even

in a world with small oxygen the

antiquated Bedrock of Scotland was covered

in rivers a billion a long time back and

there's however another mystery covered up here

there's a intersection between these rocks

which are nearly a billion a long time ancient and

the Rocks underneath are two and a half to

three billion a long time ancient this is often a major

time gap of between one and a half and

two billion a long time

foreign

the time Gap uncovered here is

extraordinary it appears that after the

traumas of their early arrangement the

rocks of the Loch Ness locale went

through a period of calm which lasted

more than a third of the age of the

Earth

[Music]

the investigation into how Loch Ness was

made has revealed its to begin with evidence

identical ancient red Sandstone found on two

continents proves that Scotland and

America were once joined together

a few of the most seasoned rocks within the world

revealed that the Bedrock fundamental

Loch Ness was made amid the Primitive

creation of the Earth's crust

had relations with sandstones lying on the antiquated

Bedrock appear that Waterways streamed over

this scene a billion a long time prior

during a long period of Tranquility

but the calm couldn't final until the end of time

a major Mainland Collision was

approaching and with it the union between

Scotland and Britain

[Music]

the examination into how Loch Ness was

made will next uncover the geographical

structures which would eventually create

Loch Ness

the explore for evidence begins with a

19th century scientific mystery

in the 1880s geologists in Scotland were

perplexed by a sequence of rocks they

found north of Loch Ness

here in a remote Slope lay the

problem

a gigantic mass of exceptionally old louisian pleasant

was lying on top of much younger rocks

the 19th century geologists had never

encountered this some time recently in their

experience younger rocks continuously lay on

beat of older beds

at that point one researcher concocted a novel

approach to attempt to solve the puzzle

a study geologist back within the Victorian

age 125 years back mapped this range and

his title was Henry cuddle he went back

to Edinburgh and he worried about what

he'd seen within the field and thought how

do I imitate what I've seen how does

this happen so he built a demonstrate and he

attempted then to appear utilizing the show

what it was that he saw in the field

cattle's model was basic he suspected

that some Force had crushed the Rocks

horizontally to make this upside down

arrangement so he built an apparatus

containing layers of sand and clay to

test his thoughts

[Music]

foreign

[Music]

erhill is utilizing a replica of cattle's

gear filled with alternating layers

of dark sand and mortar of Paris to

try and copy cattle's experiment

turning the screw winds the block

forward imitating the level pushing

constrain that cattle thought was the

offender

as the horizontal Force increments the

layers are pushed over each other along

a shallow plane which geologists Presently

call a thrust fault

and we've got the primary pushed showing up

gracious see at that another thrusts going in

the try appeared cattle exactly how

older layers the ones on the bottom are

pushed over and on best of the more youthful

layers along the plane of the pushed

blame there's some beautiful structures

in here there's a thrustful running

through here which copies the white

lab and another one through here and the

final thrust volt which is at the lowest

point out here towards the cleared out hand

side

a success in terms of a simple model

imitating what we 

450 million a long time back a supercontinent

containing North America and Scotland

lay profound within the southern half of the globe

[Music]

at its edge was an sea more extensive than

the present-day Atlantic

on the other side was Britain and Europe

but the strengths of plate tectonics were

gradually pushing the two arrive masses

together

well around 450 million a long time prior there

was a major sea where we're standing

presently it was called the iapatis sea and

it isolated America and Northwestern

Scotland on one hand from successfully

Southeastern Scotland and Britain on the

other hand

now what happened within the 20 million

a long time after that that sea closed and

inevitably was closed adequately that

two landmasses collided into each other

[Music]

the collision between America and Europe

pushed gigantic layers of shake over each

other

driving upwards a run of mountains

higher than the Himalayas are nowadays

still solidly connected to America

Scotland and Britain got to be combined

together

but what did this Collision need to do

with the making of Loch Ness

the bolt itself gives the foremost

principal prove

the one thing that's very striking

approximately Loch Ness is that once you look at

it especially from this viewpoint

you'll see that it runs straight nearly

straight as an bolt which

straightness goes on for approximately 20 miles

and as a geologist that tells me that

there must be a control on this

topographic straightness since nature

doesn't deliver things in straight lines

and so there's a structure here that's

controlling the generally shape of Loch

Ness itself

this structure is the awesome Glen blame a

major geographical blame line shaped

amid the Mainland Collision 425

million a long time prior

it runs for more than 300 miles right

across Scotland cutting the nation in

two

Loch Ness precisely takes after the line of

the awesome Glen blame

the great Glen blame isn't a pushed

blame just like the moin pushed where

fabric has been pushed up over it's

not a typical blame where fabric drops

down vertically it's horizontal movement

thank you

the great Glen blame is Scotland's

adaptation of the San Andreas fault it's

fair 400 million a long time older

the awesome Glen blame is now not dynamic

but this monster part within the Earth's

hull has been a highlight of the Scottish

scene for more than 400 million

a long time

it's the establishment of Loch Ness and

without it the bolt seem not exist nor

seem the legend of the Loch Ness

Beast

the examination into how Loch Ness was

made has revealed more prove

the disclosure of thrust faults appeared

geologists what happens when landmasses

collide

yellow Limestone from North America

found at the moin pushed demonstrates that

America and Scotland smashed into

Britain 450 million a long time back

and the shape of Loch Ness uncovers the

straight line of the basic awesome

Glenn fault formed amid that

Mainland Collision

after the Collision the strengths of plate

tectonics drove Scotland South circular the

surface of the Soil

presently the examination must take after its

astounding travel

the another step within the examination into

how Loch Ness was made traces Scotland's

Travel circular the surface of the Soil

driven by the forces of plate tectonics

understanding what the environment was

like in the past gives Clues to the

area of Loch Ness millions of a long time

back

so the examination presently moves on

to the Jurassic period 165 million a long time

prior

the path leads to the Isle of Skye an

island off the west coast of Scotland

at Staffing Inlet there is an extraordinary

piece of prove which sheds light on

this period in Scotland's past

amazingly it lay in plain locate but

unfamiliar until 1994 when an novice

geologist made an uncommon discover

on the level Rough Shoreline of this

well known Shoreline he found a fossilized

impression of a mammoth dinosaur

[Music]

Dr anjana katwa has come to analyze the

subtle elements of this remarkable evidence

when you walk over these Edges it's

fair an extraordinary feeling to think that

dinosaurs strolled on the same edge that

I'm strolling on presently

165 million years back this ledge we've

got this superb Megalosaurus

impression

the megalosaur was a 25 foot tall

carnivorous dinosaur very a imposing

Predator during Jurassic times

with a few people standing as tall

as a football objective post Megalosaurus was

a fearsome creature

but how may something as transitory as

a impression be protected for 165 million

a long time

the impressions are so interesting what's

happened is that a dinosaur has traveled

over a kind of sticky gooey mud and

their Impressions have been cleared out behind

that mud is dried off and it's solidified

and then over time windblown sand has

come in and secured that impression over

and after that as encourage time has created

we get layers of clay and sand building

up over that impression which

footprint becomes fossilized over time

now over some million a long time disintegration

happens and those Impressions gotten to be

uncovered for us to see nowadays

Dr katwa is making a mortar cast of one

of the impressions so she will be able to

look at it more closely

prints so we are able take them back to the

lab and have a see at them and

understand how this animal used to

live

as she carefully evacuates the plaster

cast its shape uncovers a 165 million

year ancient Mystery

one thing that truly strikes me

actually is the Profound impression that

this front toe is made and how pointed

it is

and this tells me that this dinosaur was

moving at a quick speed and truly

pushing down on its front three toes so

we might have been chasing a few kind of

prey

[Music]

but Megalosaurus wasn't the as it were

dinosaur to take off its Impressions in

these rocks only 60 miles from Loch Ness

[Music]

usually the smallest dinosaur impression

that anyone has ever found within the world

you'll really see it's almost the size

of my fingernail and we think it's a

celophysis and it's very curiously

since the little impression here which

we think is from a hatchling is implanted

within the bigger one here that you can see

what we think this tells us is that the

youthful traveled with their guardians in

bunches which most likely the adults

were looking after the Youthful

geologists have utilized the astonishing

evidence of the impressions of

coelophysis and Megalosaurus together

with the sloppy rocks they were found in

to better uncover the story of Loch Ness

within the Jurassic period

at the time Scotland was still connected

to America

plate tectonics had driven this arrive

mass much closer the equator two

thousand miles further south than it is

presently

which had a major effect on the

climate and environment of Loch Ness

back amid the Jurassic times a climate

and the environment was exceptionally exceptionally

different to what we see nowadays there

would have been Rich jungles full of

tropical vegetation and the dinosaurs

would have been living on the edge of

these wildernesses traveling over Lagoon all

sort of wetlands this climate was ideal

for dinosaurs to live in since it

bolstered a tremendous ecosystem of natural life

that they would have originated before on

the bones of one more dinosaur have

as of late been found on the Isle of Skye

the plesiosaur

but this discovery produced a

completely diverse kind of Intrigued

devotees see a strong likeness

between the shape of the plesiosaur and

a few portrayals of the Loch Ness

Beast

could a relative of the long extinct

plesiosaur truly be the source of the

legend

the prove to unwind the

uncommon geographical history of Loch

Ness is getting more grounded the discoveries of

Megalosaurus and celophysis Impressions

demonstrate that dinosaurs lived in Scotland

165 million a long time prior which Loch Ness

was at that point a subtropical Heaven two

thousand miles assist south than it is

nowadays

but around 60 million years back 5 million

a long time after the dinosaurs got to be extinct

plate tectonics would tear Loch Ness and

America separated

the examination into how Loch Ness was

made presently moves forward to a Time 60

million a long time prior

Scotland and America are still immovably

joined together

the next question is when and how did

they ended up separated

on the Isle of Skye the landscape is

full of prove which can unlock the

secrets of this turbulent period in

Scotland's past

at talisker Cove the massive Ocean Cliffs

give the primary clue to the occasions

that crushed the locale

they're made completely of volcanic lava

I'm standing here on a single magma stream

and this nerva stream is as it were approximately 10

feet thick but this entire Cliff over me

is made up of magma flaves possibly 150 feet

or more and extending for miles in all

directions

presently these magma stage are composed of

Basil

that's the same type of shake that's

being emitted nowadays from Modern

volcanoes like Hawaii or Iceland

geologists have calculated that these

Basalt magmas on Sky are around 60 million

years old

but where is the well of lava which ejected

them

the clue comes from a run of mountains

on the southern tip of Sky the coolant

Slopes

it's the type of rock that makes up

these jagged Crests which give the

prove

position is the best salt that's been

emitted onto the surface but there's a

distinction the bath salt that was

emitted was cooled exceptionally quickly because

it was uncovered to the discuss

geologists call that fine-grained

on the other hand the magma that was

caught possibly a mile down underneath the

earth's surface that cooled lovely

gradually it was kept warm for very a long

time and so you've got exceptionally huge

gems developing and after you get a rock

with expansive precious stones that's what we call

coarse grained

the large crystals within the gabbro Rocks

allow absent their origin they tell

geologists that the coolant Hills are

the remains of an enormous magma chamber

deep underneath the well of lava where lava was

put away some time recently being erupted onto the

surface

but how much magma was there

we may be looking now at

the Green Valley but really all these

slopes around here are made up of rocks

that were shaped in a series of massive

volcanic ejections approximately 60 million

a long time back and at that time there were

volcanoes erupting all over Scotland

here we are on sky and this is fair one

of those volcanoes

it's now known that an unimaginable 500

cubic miles of magma was ejected on Sky

alone

that's sufficient to cover the full of

Texas with a layer of magma 10 feet thick

this was just the tip of the chunk of ice

the Rocks themselves uncover that

volcanoes ejected all over Scotland on a

massive scale

the evidence is here huge regular

columns within the magma streams looking like

they've been carved out of the Rock

in reality these astonishing arrangements are

made by gentle cooling of thick lavas

precisely the same sort of columns are

found in outcrops of Basalt lava 80

miles absent off the west coast of

Scotland

and as distant absent as the coast of Ireland

150 miles from sky

these magmas have all been dated at around

60 million years old and they were also

part of the same arrangement of massive

ejections which spread out for hundreds

of miles in all bearings

but what was the cause of the ejections

Dr great sufficient has found another clue

which points to the roots of these

magmas and their part within the creation of

Loch Ness

this is the Rope he took to another stream

in Hawaii they call it pahui Hui and

what happens is that the lava gets a

lean skin on its surface because it cools but

it's still flowing underneath that skin

and the thin skin wrinkles and gets

pushed forward giving this ropey surface

that we can see here but it's really

very uncommon to see them like this in

these old lava flaves but it tells us a

part around the sort of magma that was

ejecting from that volcano

[Music]

geologists know that this kind of magma

comes from profound within the Soil it

ordinarily ejects on the surface when

structural strengths part the Earth's hull

separated is that what happened here 60

million a long time back

at that time Scotland was still joined

to North America

landmasses were being

evil forces

which permitted molten rock or magma

from profound inside the Earth to well up

and to be ejected from those volcanoes

and inevitably that volcanic action

driven to the development of a unused sea

between Scotland and North America the

Atlantic Sea

so the magmas are the path of prove

which show that the opening up of the

Atlantic Sea started with volcanic

ejections all over Scotland

[Music]

as magma emitted under the sea the sea

floor spread out slowly pushing Scotland

and America separated

the birth of the Atlantic Sea had a

coordinate impact on the making of Loch Ness

as the sea developed the huge powers

involved stirred the 400 million year

ancient awesome Glen blame

so faults like the awesome Glen these are

zones of shortcoming in Earth's outside and

they're like scars or wounds they can

reopen and in the case of the great

Glenn it was reactivated when the

Atlantic started opening 50 to 60 million

a long time back and this is why you see this

feature now present in today's landscape

indeed though the blame itself is 400

million a long time old

the enormous topographical developments

shattered and debilitated the Rocks along

the blame

along this line of weakness a river

begun cutting down through the

smashed rocks gradually carving out a

valley

for the following 55 million a long time the

landscape of Scotland weathered and

eroded

the diagrams of the mountains mollified

and the coastline began to take on its

present shape

Loch Ness got to be a long river valley

following the line of the awesome Glen

blame

the examination is close to revealing

the ultimate stages in the story of how

Loch Ness was made

colossal magma flows on the Isle of Skye

reveal that gigantic volcanic ejections

60 million a long time prior were the begin of

the separation of Scotland and America

the sharp outline of the 400 million

year ancient great Glenn blame shows that

the fault was stirred as Scotland and

America were torn separated

but there was one last land-changing

occasion to come

nature wasn't finished with Loch Ness

and 

when he inspected the parallel streets

Agassi realized that they were antiquated

shorelines but that the valley had been

filled not by the ocean but by a

freshwater lake

[Music]

from his information of ice sheets within the

Alps Agassi was able to appear that a

freshwater lake had once filled the

valley

the lake was kept full by a gigantic Icy mass

which blocked the conclusion of the valley

as the ice sheet softened and solidified once more

three times the water within the valley

purged and filled up to a distinctive

level

carving out the three Antique shorelines

at first Agassi wasn't believed since

individuals accepted Darwin and after that over

time it got to be clear that Agassi was

adjust and Darwin claiming it was one

of his incredible shames that he got

something so appallingly off-base

which sort of appears that indeed incredible

researchers can make mistakes

the prove that Glenn Roy persuaded

Agassi that numerous highlights within the

Scottish scene must have been made

by icy masses

which driven him to the startling

conclusion at the time that the entire of

Scotland had once been secured by Ice

on the mount you make that jump that

what you've got here was created by

glaciers you've immediately need to make

the leap to the reality that we must have

had an awfully cold climate here within the past

cold sufficient for Rice sheets and glasses

to to construct up this site may be a is of

world significance in terms of the

understanding of glaciations and the you

know the reality that within the past ice

secured a much bigger extent of the

planet than it as of now covers

this exceptional examination Driven

in the long run to the thought of the Ice Age

periods within the topographical past when much

of the northern side of the equator was secured

in icy masses and ice sheets

since agassi's revelations researchers

have been examining the part of ice

in making Loch Ness around two and a half

million a long time prior the worldwide climate

begun to cool and since at that point we've had

a arrangement of rehashed glaciations generally

almost once each hundred thousand a long time

the ice Progressed temperatures plunged

normal winter temperatures were at

slightest 30 degrees colder than nowadays as

the ice built up it come to

uncommon thicknesses

the ice sheet over the center of

Scotland would have been three or four

thousand feet thick here in in Loch Ness

it would have certainly been um some

of thousand feet thick you might have

seen many of the highest mountains fair

peeking out the best of the ice sheet but

within the fundamental the entire of the scene

would have fair been covered by by Ice

but what effect did this tremendous weight of

ice have on the creation of Loch Ness

the bolt itself is difficult to

explore since it's full of water

but there's another area where the

prove is obvious

just 20 miles from Loch Ness is the

prohibiting Valley of Glencoe

Glencoe could be a incredible put in Scottish

history as it was here that an Scandalous

Slaughter took put in 1692 when the

McDonald Clan were killed in their

beds by the Campbells

the shape of this Valley sheds light on

the way Loch Ness was made

in the event that you'll really deplete the water

out of Loch Ness what you'd actually end

up with may be a valley with this sort of

shape

and looking down Glencoe you can see

it's a really exceptionally steep-sided level foot

Valley and it's essentially been made

by glasses more than once flying down the

valley dissolving it and fundamentally gouging

out what was initially a v-shaped esteem

and turning it into an over extended

U-shaped valley

Ice sheets are greatly effective at

disintegrating the landscape they choose up endless

sums of shake flotsam and jetsam which is carried

along at the base of the glacier

with the weight of millions of tons of

ice on best of it this shake debris grinds

absent the Bedrock like sandpaper scouring

and extending The Valleys to a

characteristic u-shape

over Scotland there are hundreds of

valleys with this particular u-shape

bearing witness to the colossal number of

ice sheets which once secured this entire

locale

at Loch Ness submerged mapping has

uncovered that the bolt has this

signature u-shape

it's level bottomed with very soak sides

in a few places as it were 50 feet from the

shoreline the water is over 500 feet

profound

assist verification that Loch Ness was made by

a icy mass

there was already a long river valley

which had shaped along the line of

weakness created by the smashed rocks

along the incredible Glen blame

at that point amid the last ice age a giant

Glacier flowed down the valley gradually

carving out Loch Ness

as ice streams down it it scours out

extends it and over over a arrangement of

glaciations it develops it to the degree

that it's presently you know a bolt 750 feet

profound

the examination is presently confronted with two

last questions how did Loch Ness fill

up with new water and what keeps it

full

free Shake and boulders found on a colossal

Edge 250 feet tall at the head of the

bolt might give the reply

quickly self-evident thing almost these

huge rocks is that they're amazingly

smooth and well-rounded which

shows that they've been transported

by by water they're moreover exceptionally huge this

is very heavy so you would like a lot of

vitality so that tells you that you've got

a parcel of melt water that's carried it

and at that point subsequently dumped it where we

are presently

this prove combined with revelations

approximately climate change shows what happened

here

about ten thousand a long time back worldwide

temperatures Rose quickly the ice started

to dissolve and the icy masses withdrawn

glasses down there would have been

dissolving Loch Ness bringing up expansive

amounts of silt which dregs is

at that point being transported in this heading

by the by the streaming ice additionally by

streaming soften water

as the ice melted a huge waterway shaped

under the Loch Ness Icy mass carrying

with it endless sums of shake flotsam and jetsam

and after that what we've got here what we're

standing on is influence the Zone where the

Glasser is presently dumping that dregs

millions of tons of rocks made an

colossal plug which cursed the stream and

stopped the water from getting away

as the ice softened the valley filled up

at long last making the lake we know as Loch

Ness

[Music]

Loch Ness is as it were 10 000 years old but

the investigation into its history has

revealed an astonishing story

ancient ruddy sandstone rocks appear that

Scotland and the U.S were once joined

together

the shape of Loch Ness is controlled by

the extraordinary Glen fault shaped when

Scotland and America smashed into

Britain more than 400 million a long time back

fossilized dinosaur impressions put

Loch Ness near the equator amid the

Jurassic period

magma streams reveal that gigantic volcanic

ejections 60 million a long time back started the

separation of Scotland in America

and the profile of Loch Ness demonstrates that

it was carved out by ice sheets ten

thousand a long time back

finally creating the Loch Ness we know

today

but what of the Loch Ness Creature

the famous image is presently known to be a

fake

but is there any way that the legendary

Monster might be a relative of the

dinosaurs

we have two topographical truths that tell

us that bachnest cannot be inhabited by

a dinosaur one is the dinosaurs died a

long long time ago in the bolt itself

geologically is very young

dinosaurs went terminated 65 million a long time

ago so 65 million a long time to 10 000 years

it's a long time remove and there's

no chance at all that you would have

protected in this law an antiquated creature

from times millions of a long time back the

Lock's too youthful

so the geological prove demonstrates that

Loch Ness might not be domestic to a

dinosaur that some way or another survived there

since the Jurassic

the awesome geological history of Loch

Ness has tossed up numerous Secrets

but for science the Loch Ness Monster is

not one of them 

same time 

miles inland 

submarines