What out for Niccolò Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli was born on May 3, 1469, in Florence. His father, Bernardo Machiavelli, was unable to pursue a legal career due to political challenges and outstanding tax obligations. His mother, Bartolomea Machiavelli, received an education that was typically denied to young girls and was involved in various business activities. Under the influence of the Medici family, Florence emerged as a pivotal center of the Italian Renaissance. The Signoria, the highest executive authority, was dominated by the Medici. The Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, a remarkable work of Renaissance architecture designed by Brunelleschi, stands as a testament to this era. Lorenzo de' Medici played a significant role in elevating Florence to new heights. Proficiency in Latin and Greek was essential for officials in Florence. Niccolò Machiavelli was educated in classical studies, preparing him for a future in law or governance. Following the downfall of Savonarola, Machiavelli ascended to the position of second chancellor. He sought the office of second chancellor in Florence and ultimately succeeded after the arrest and execution of Savonarola. Machiavelli's political circumstances changed dramatically in a short period. He encountered a constitutional crisis alongside substantial debt. Florence initiated a campaign aimed at reclaiming the city of Pisa.

A military threat from Venice loomed over Florence, prompting a significant confrontation. The leaders of Florence faced a critical decision regarding alliances, weighing their options between France and neighboring Italian states. Although Machiavelli did not hold an official role in diplomatic matters, he undertook a diplomatic mission that involved unsuccessful negotiations during the conflict with Pisa. He adeptly engaged in discussions with a mercenary captain as part of his diplomatic efforts. A peace proposal from Venice was turned down, indicating a strategic shift towards potential conflicts with the Ottoman Empire. Machiavelli prepared a report that encapsulated the views of Florence's generals concerning the campaign for Pisa. His negotiations with Caterina Sforza were unsuccessful, and he ultimately aligned with France against Milan. The initial Florentine offensive against Pisa showed promise but ultimately faltered due to indecision and a malaria outbreak. Machiavelli sanctioned the arrest and execution of Vitelli. Florence sought military support from Louis XII, yet Swiss mercenaries proved reluctant to engage in battle. A mutiny erupted among unpaid mercenaries, leading to the collapse of the siege on Pisa. This failed siege strained the relationship between Florence and its French ally. Subsequently, Machiavelli was dispatched as an envoy to France to advocate against the Swiss mercenaries.

Machiavelli's initiatives successfully restored tranquility and enhanced the circumstances in Florence. He diligently gathered intelligence within the city. Subsequently, he was appointed as the assistant commissioner general to uphold peace. His marriage to Marietta Corsini proved to be fruitful. During this period, Florence encountered threats from both Borgia and the Medici families. In response, Florence consented to provide financial support to Louis in exchange for French protection. The citizens of Florence faced significant challenges in the regions of Pisa and Arezzo. Machiavelli played a crucial role in the negotiations with Borgia, which initially began unfavorably; however, Louis ultimately came to Florence's defense. In light of these events, Florence implemented constitutional reforms and designated Piero Soderini as gonfalonier for life. With the backing of the French, Florence adeptly outmaneuvered Borgia during the negotiations. Machiavelli cautioned the Florentines against underestimating the Duke of Romagna. The Great Council reached a consensus to appoint gonfaloniers for life, leading to the selection of the seasoned diplomat Piero Soderini for this position. Meanwhile, Borgia mended his relationship with King Louis, regaining his favor. Vitelli and other mercenaries conspired to incite rebellion in Romagna and sought an alliance with Florence. In response, Machiavelli was dispatched to Imola to engage in negotiations with Borgia. It became evident that Florence could not finalize any agreements without first consulting King Louis. Borgia's negotiating stance grew stronger as the rebellious mercenaries suggested launching an attack on Florence. Machiavelli advised the Florentines to reach an agreement promptly; however, they were already deep in negotiations with Borgia and the mercenaries.

Florence missed its chance, and Machiavelli asked to go back home. His request was denied, and he joined Borgia on the campaign. Cesare became ill and went to Rome to influence the election of a new pope. He was confirmed in his position but had to seek refuge in Castel Sant’Angelo due to opposition. Pope Pius died, and Borgia supported Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere as the new pope. Machiavelli observed the papal conclave and was cautious about the new pope's promises. Julius II arrested Borgia, eliminating one of Florence's enemies. Naples was captured by Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, causing concerns for Florence's safety. Florence faced threats from the Spanish, the Venetians, and a potential invasion by Maximilian I. Machiavelli was sent to France to confer with King Louis. Florence prepared for war with Aragon and attempted to capture Pisa. The Florentines built canals to dry up Pisa's port. Machiavelli supervised the project, but it was eventually abandoned. The Florentine army successfully defeated the Aragonese invasion force. The capture of Pisa seemed inevitable, but disagreements among the commanders led to failure. Soderini agreed to Machiavelli's suggestion to revive a citizen militia.

Machiavelli commanded the militia in the siege of Pisa, effectively cutting off their supplies. He then organized and led the militia in a raid on the Pisan countryside, destroying their harvest. By November, Pisa was facing shortages. Florence secured support from France and Aragon against Pisa. Machiavelli made sure that the besieging army was well-provisioned. Pisa surrendered on June 8, 1509, and Florentine authorities took control after a fifteen-year war. The victory in Pisa bolstered Soderini's position in Florence. The death of Piero de' Medici led to Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici becoming the head of the Medici family. The League of Cambrai achieved several victories against Venice, but the Venetians began to fight back. The pope contemplated withdrawing from the alliance with the League of Cambrai. In February 1510, the pope signed a treaty with Venice. Machiavelli was sent to France to persuade Louis to maintain the alliance with Maximilian and avoid open conflict with the pope. Florence fell to the Holy League and Machiavelli was dismissed from his office. In 1512, Florence, with the support of a French ally, was defeated by the Holy League. The restoration of the Medici led to Machiavelli's dismissal and arrest in 1513. He was released upon payment of 1,000 florins after Julius' death, and Cardinal Giovanni became Leo X. Machiavelli believed that a prince should be feared rather than loved. He argued that a prince should have his citizen militia to defend against threats. He believed that internal order and overcoming factional politics were important for a prince. Machiavelli hoped to send a copy of The Prince to Giuliano de’ Medici. He exchanged stories about love affairs with Vettori. Machiavelli predicted that a French alliance would be favorable for the pope. The Medici recognized Machiavelli's talents.

Francis achieved triumph alongside Venetian allies and recaptured Milan. Following the victory, Francis entered into a truce with the pope. Lorenzo de' Medici sought advice from Machiavelli. Despite this, Lorenzo disregarded Machiavelli's book The Prince. Machiavelli then joined a circle of intellectuals and commenced writing The Ass. His literary works could be interpreted as a critique of Florentine politics. Machiavelli penned the play Mandragola. On the other hand, Charles V of Spain inherited various kingdoms and posed a threat to Florence and the Papal States. Charles, who was already the King of Spain, Naples, and Sicily, as Holy Roman Emperor, posed a dual threat to Florence and the Papal States. Through an agreement with Charles, Pope Leo sided against the French, thus involving Florence in the conflict. Machiavelli authored 'The Art of War' to gain favor with Giulio, advocating for a proficient military force. In his treatise, Machiavelli discussed organization, training, weapons, and fortifications, promoting innovative military technologies. The book foresaw that the state implementing these theories and technologies would conquer all of Italy. Machiavelli's efforts led to a meeting with Cardinal Giulio and a commission to write a history of the Florentine state. Apart from his historical endeavors, Machiavelli undertook minor diplomatic missions and proposed constitutional reforms. He contended that Florence was suited for a republican government, despite the potential challenge to Medici authority. Machiavelli advocated for political reforms and maintained his support for the Medici amidst a fluctuating political environment.

He recommended the formation of a council comprising 200 citizens appointed by the pope and the reinstatement of the Great Council. Additionally, he suggested that the pope and the cardinal be granted control over the judicial system and the military. Despite his bold proposals, Machiavelli retained the trust of the Medici. The outbreak of war between Francis I and Charles V led the pope to ally with Charles to ensure the Medici's dominance in Florence. Machiavelli successfully mediated a conflict involving the Franciscan Order in favor of Florence. He authored The Art of War to promote effective strategies within the Papal Imperial army. The French forces collapsed, and a rebellion in Milan compelled the French to retreat from Italy. The death of Pope Leo X diminished the Medici's grip on Florence. Cardinal Francesco Soderini conspired to oust the Medici and restore his brother Piero to power. In response, Machiavelli proposed constitutional reforms that echoed his previous recommendations. The assassination plot against Cardinal Giulio orchestrated by the Soderini was uncovered and thwarted, ensuring the Medici's continued authority.

Francis was captured and the battle resulted in a catastrophe for the pope. Clement engaged in negotiations with Charles, who insisted on having imperial control over Florence, Siena, and Lucca. The pope understood that the only option left was war, despite lacking an army. Machiavelli suggested the creation of a citizen militia in the Romagna, but the plan proved to be impractical. A treaty was signed between France and Spain, but Francis rejected it and readied for conflict. The pope feared Charles advancing towards Rome, prompting Machiavelli to assess the city's defenses. Machiavelli was tasked with overseeing the fortifications of Rome. The formation of the League of Cognac brought together the Papacy, France, Venice, and Florence. The armies of the League were positioned on the outskirts of Milan. Machiavelli supervised the restoration of Florence's walls and later joined the League's army. The Colonna family raised an army to resist the pope, leading Clement to flee. An imperial army swept through northern Italy and appeared poised to advance towards Tuscany. Machiavelli was dispatched to the League's headquarters to determine if its forces would defend Florence. Della Rovere refused to carry out his commands, sparking a conflict with the pope.

Niccolò Machiavelli devoted his life to the service of Florence during a time marked by political turmoil and ongoing conflict across the Italian peninsula. While he held a preference for republican governance and dedicated much of his career to the Florentine republic, he was prepared to set aside personal allegiances to foster the stability and prosperity of the city. His role as a diplomat, navigating the complexities of ever-changing alliances, provided him with a unique understanding of the intricacies of political and diplomatic matters, insights that have continued to resonate through his writings over the centuries. His counsel to political leaders to disregard moral and ethical considerations in the exercise of power shocked both Christian moralists and liberal thinkers, contributing to his controversial reputation. In addition to his political work, Machiavelli was also a poet and fiction writer; his comedic plays enjoyed considerable popularity during his lifetime, and his correspondence with friends was characterized by humor and cleverness. The prevailing view of Machiavelli as a proponent of manipulative and deceitful political strategies is subject to debate. Some contend that he was fundamentally a supporter of republican ideals, with his political solutions aimed at establishing robust and stable states that would ensure the prosperity and freedom of their citizens.