Stages of Arabic Language

Arabic is a Semitic language originating in the Arabian Peninsula. It is the official language of over 20 countries and spoken by around 300 million people worldwide, making it one of the most widely spoken languages globally. Arabic has a long and rich history spanning over 1,500 years. Throughout its history, the Arabic language has gone through several developmental stages, with Classical Arabic emerging as the prestigious literary form. This article will provide an overview of the major historical stages in the evolution of the Arabic language.

Pre-Islamic Arabic

The Arabic language traces its origins back to Central Semitic languages spoken in the Middle East since the 2nd millennium BCE. The northern dialect of Central Semitic developed into Ancient North Arabian languages like Safaitic and Hismaic which were spoken by nomadic tribes in northern Arabia. Meanwhile, the southern dialect evolved into Old Arabic, the language used by tribes in central and southern Arabia before the rise of Islam in the 7th century CE.

Old Arabic had 28 consonants and eight vowels. It was written in the Nabataean Aramaic script. Old Arabic existed in both poetic and prose forms. Pre-Islamic poetry flourished as an oral tradition and was used to preserve tribal history and stories. This poetry followed rigid meters and rhyme schemes. Leading pre-Islamic poets included Imru’ al-Qais, Tarafah ibn al Abd, and Imru' al-Qays. Prose works were also being written before Islam, but not much has survived. Examples include magical spells, monotheistic chant hymns, and legends like the story of queen Sheba.

Quranic Arabic

In 610 CE, the Prophet Muhammad began receiving divine revelations that were later compiled into the Quran, the central religious text of Islam. The Quran was revealed in the Arabic dialect spoken in Mecca and Medina at that time. This Quranic Arabic represents the transition point between Old Arabic and Classical Arabic.

Quranic Arabic introduced new vocabulary relating to Islamic concepts as well as syntactic changes. It has its own unique grammatical structure and style described as “i’jaz” or inimitability. The text of the Quran became the basis for Classical Arabic. The revelations also led to Arabic becoming established as the liturgical language of Islam.

Classical Arabic

The period after the advent of Islam between the 8th and 13th centuries saw the emergence of Classical Arabic. This variety, also known as al-fusha, literally meaning ‘the eloquent’, was based on the Quranic language and vocabulary. Classical Arabic became the literary and educational standard across the Islamic empire.

Poets and scholars from the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties produced influential works in Classical Arabic across a range of genres like poetry, historical chronicles, and religious and scientific treatises. Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi wrote the first Arabic dictionary. Sibawayh authored the first book on Arabic grammar. Classical Arabic poetry reached its peak with figures like Imru al-Qais and al-Mutanabbi. The famous Arabian Nights folk tales were also written during this period.

Classical Arabic served as the common literary language across North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia. However, colloquial spoken varieties of Arabic also developed across these regions. Classical Arabic remains unchanged to this day as the language of religious texts, formal writing, literature and academic works, speeches and media across the Arab world.

Spread of Arabic with Islam

After the rise of Islam in the 7th century, Arabic quickly spread beyond the Arabian Peninsula with Muslim conquests. Arabic became the administrative language of the caliphates. Dialects of colloquial Arabic developed in the provinces as it came in contact with local languages. These colloquial varieties differ phonetically, grammatically, and lexically from each other and Classical Arabic.

Under the Umayyad Caliphate based in Damascus, Arabic expanded into Syria, Egypt, North Africa, and Muslim Spain. Local dialects like Levantine, Egyptian, and Maghrebi Arabic emerged. Under the Abbasid Caliphate centered in Baghdad, Arabic spread eastwards into Persia, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. This led to the development of dialects like Iraqi, Eastern Arabic, and languages influenced by Arabic like Farsi, Urdu, and Swahili.

Arabic linguistics and literature flourished during the Islamic Golden Age between the 8th and 13th centuries. Scholars studied and wrote prolifically in Classical Arabic. Their works covered topics like Arabic grammar, lexicography, poetry, history, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy. The Arabic language further enriched with the assimilation of foreign vocabulary especially from Persian, Greek, and Syriac.

Vernacularization of Arabic

From the 13th century onwards, colloquial Arabic dialects derived from Classical Arabic started to be used increasingly for literary purposes alongside Classical Arabic. The vernacular literature movement was pioneered by writers like Muhammad al-Muwaylihi who used Egyptian colloquial Arabic in their works.

Colloquial Arabic works explored themes of local culture, social change, and nationalism. They were targeted towards the new reading public rather than traditional elites. Vernacular literature developed in three stages: early experiments blending Classical and colloquial Arabic, hybrid works using Modern Standard Arabic vocabulary with colloquial grammar and syntax, and works entirely in local dialects.

The Arabic literary renaissance or al-Nahda of the late 19th century saw prolific vernacular writing and publishing using printing technology. Pioneering authors in Egyptian Arabic include Naguib Mahfouz, Taha Hussein, and Tawfiq al-Hakim who gained international recognition. Vernacular Arabic literature tremendously expanded the literacy, readership, and themes of modern Arabic writing.

Modern Standard Arabic

Around the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Modern Standard Arabic started emerging from Classical Arabic. Modern Standard Arabic is the modernized variety of Classical Arabic used today in writing, prepared speeches, the news media, education, and formal communication across the Arab world. It is also often called literary Arabic or al-fusha al-asr.

Modern Standard Arabic has added vocabulary to deal with modern concepts and technology. It has dropped some archaic Classical Arabic vocabulary and grammatical constructions and incorporates vernacular features and expressions. However, the core grammar and structure remains based on Quranic Arabic making it continuous with the Classical language. It is written in the Arabic script but pronunciation varies locally.

Modern Standard Arabic serves as the lingua franca that enables communication between Arabs from different regions who speak different colloquial dialects. It is the official written and spoken language in the Arab League and used by Arab governments, media outlets, and universities. Most Arabs are diglossic being taught to read and write in Modern Standard Arabic but speak their regional colloquial variety.

Arabic Language in the 21st Century

Arabic remains one of the six official languages of the United Nations. It is considered a critical language by the US government and widely taught in schools and universities globally. Modern Standard Arabic continues to play an important political and cultural role in the Arab world. Classical Arabic remains intact as the language of Quranic exegesis, hadith studies, jurisprudence, and Islamic scholarship.

Meanwhile, colloquial Arabic dialects have gained more legitimacy and been modified through exposure to Modern Standard Arabic. They are increasingly used in popular media like music, film, and social media impacting the language. Translations from foreign languages have also expanded the Arabic lexicon. Arabic dialects are evolving faster to keep up as a living vernacular.

The future development of Arabic will likely involve increased diversity between the conservative Classical language continuing to represent tradition and cultural identity and innovative colloquial dialects shaped by youth culture and technology reflecting the realities of modern Arab life.

Conclusion

In summary, Arabic has undergone major stages in its development from pre-Islamic Old Arabic through Quranic Arabic to Classical Arabic which spread with Islam and continues as Modern Standard Arabic. The dynamic between Classical Arabic as the prestigious literary standard and evolving colloquial Arabic dialects persisting as living vernaculars continues to shape the Arabic language in the modern era. Understanding this historical evolution provides crucial insights into the significance and diversity of Arabic language and literature.