Musical Traditions in the Urban and Rural Life of Kabul: Cultural Practices, Rituals, and Historical Development

Musical Traditions in the Urban and Rural Life of Kabul: Cultural Practices, Rituals, and Historical Development

Author: Islamuddin Feroz, Former Professor, Department of Music, Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Kabul

Abstract

The musical culture of Kabul is a multilayered and dynamic system encompassing both urban and rural traditions. This paper examines the historical development of Kabul’s music from folk, domestic, and Sufi practices to classical and popular urban forms, highlighting the impact of socio-cultural and political transformations. Rural music, including wedding songs, work songs, and lullabies, coexisted with urban folk and street performances, while domestic music often centered on family celebrations and the participation of women. Sufi and khānaqāh traditions, including qawwali and na‘t, and Ramadan music represented the spiritual dimension of the city’s musical landscape. The establishment of Radio Kabul in 1941 catalyzed the dissemination and evolution of urban, classical, and folk music, introducing orchestras, new instruments, and expanding the role of women in public performance. Kharabat, Kabul’s historic center for classical music, played a pivotal role in the education of musicians and preservation of Indian classical music traditions. Overall, Kabul’s music reflects the interplay of indigenous traditions, foreign influences, and cultural continuity in shaping the city’s rich and diverse musical identity.

Keywords: Kabul, Afghan music, Kharabat, folk music, classical music, Sufi music, Radio Kabul

Introduction

Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, has historically served as a hub of cultural, social, and artistic activity, with music occupying a central role in its urban and rural life. The city’s musical traditions are complex and multifaceted, encompassing a wide range of genres, instruments, and performance contexts. Rural music surrounding Kabul included wedding songs, work songs, lullabies, and festive chants, often performed with the dohol and surna. These musical practices were integral to agrarian life and seasonal celebrations, reflecting both the labor and leisure of local communities. In urban settings, street musicians, comic performers, and picnic music enriched public spaces, while domestic music—particularly performed by women—contributed to familial celebrations, including birthdays, circumcisions, weddings, and engagements. Religious music, particularly qawwali and na‘t in khānaqāhs, alongside Ramadan melodies, represented the spiritual and ritual dimensions of Kabul’s musical life. From the early twentieth century, the establishment of Radio Kabul catalyzed the expansion of both urban and rural musical forms, facilitating the emergence of orchestras, new instruments, and the gradual inclusion of women performers. Simultaneously, Kharabat maintained its historic status as the center of classical music education, preserving Indian classical traditions through the teaching of instruments such as the sitar, tabla, rabab, and vocal ghazal performance. This paper explores how these diverse musical practices collectively shaped Kabul’s rich and enduring musical identity, reflecting the interaction of indigenous, regional, and global influences across centuries.

Indigenous Musical Traditions of Kabul

The musical culture of Kabul possesses a multilayered structure composed of both local and urban elements, and is highly diverse in terms of style, form, and subgenres. Nevertheless, the music of Kabul has undergone substantial transformations over time. The expansion of urbanization has reshaped musical practices within the city and its surrounding regions. In particular, the establishment of Radio Kabul in 1940 (1319 SH) marked a significant turning point in the evolution of both rural and urban music, accelerating processes of change and development.

During this period, Kabul’s musical tradition consisted of two primary components: rural and urban music. Rural music from the Kabul environs included wedding songs, work songs, festive chants, lullabies, and romantic melodies. Wedding celebrations, traditional ceremonies, and national rituals were commonly accompanied by the dohol (drum) and surna (oboe-like wind instrument), instruments that symbolized the cultural and communal identity of Kabul’s inhabitants. Prominent performers of these instruments—such as Rahmat Khan and Mohammad Hasan (surna players), and Masjedi and Ghulam Dastgir (dohol players)—were all natives of Chahar Deh, Kabul.

“Danilo,” the French researcher who visited Kabul in the 1960s, provides a detailed description of the dohol and surna musicians of the Chahar Deh region. He writes:

“The musicians of Chahar Deh perform at wedding ceremonies. They accompany the groom as he brings the bride on horseback. The type of music they play resembles British music more than the music of India or Iran.” He further notes regarding one of the rural dance melodies of Kabul’s villages:

“This rustic melody, in terms of style, structure, and rhythmic design, belongs to the family of early European music and derives from Indo-Greek and Aryan musical traditions” (Danilo, 2003, p. 4).

These observations indicate that Kabul has long been an important cultural center in which diverse musical forms have emerged and flourished. Each of these musical examples reflects the historical encounters and intermingling of various cultural influences within the region. Yet, despite these layers of transformation, the people of Kabul have continued to preserve their ancestral customs and celebrate them through music and festive performances. Traditional Ceremonies such as the Nowruz festival, nihal-shani (sapling-planting), Farmer’s Day, and other seasonal festivities are among these traditions, all of which are celebrated with dance music and performances of atan, chub-bazi (stick dance), accompanied by the rhythms of the dohol and surna.

Another significant component of Kabul’s urban musical life was the tradition of itinerant or street musicians. These performers roamed through neighbourhoods, streets, and bazaars playing dohol and surna or harmonium. They would enter homes hosting joyous occasions—such as birthdays, engagements, weddings, and other celebrations—and perform for the household, offering congratulations through music. In return, the hosts would offer the musicians gifts in the form of money, sweets, or other tokens of appreciation

Another form of urban music in Kabul was comic or satirical performance music, which was staged in public marketplaces by performers known as moqalledin (imitators or mimics). These groups typically consisted of three to four members: three musicians and a fourth who served as the singer or moqalled. The instruments they used included the naqqara (kettle drum), tula or ney (reed flute), and a triangular percussion instrument popularly known as jaltarang.

Picnic music (mīla-ye mūsīqī) formed another significant part of Kabul’s musical culture. During these outings, individuals—often accompanied by friends who were skilled in playing local instruments or had pleasant singing voices—would travel to the gardens and lush landscapes surrounding Kabul, especially Paghman, Istalif, Charikar, Panjshir, and other nearby regions. There they engaged in recreation, musical performance, and dance.

In the rural areas around Kabul, one also encounters another tradition known as agrarian songs or zamindāri melodies. These songs were usually performed by young farmers during wheat harvesting, threshing, irrigation, or on nights when they awaited their turn for water. Sung in free rhythm and a relatively high vocal register, these melodies helped workers overcome fatigue and sleeplessness. Their themes were predominantly romantic, as seen in lines such as:

“How restless and bewildered we are, O beloved;

Forever enamored of beauty, O beloved.”

These songs, carried across the fields in the stillness of night—under the moonlight and the glitter of stars—held a special charm. Young farmers were generally familiar with these melodies and regarded them as an inseparable part of their lived experience and memories. The lyrical foundation of these folkloric songs often consisted of romantic do-bayti and chahar-bayti verses.

Within Kabul’s cultural calendar, several nights and observances rooted in ancient beliefs were also celebrated with music. Among them were Shab-e Barat and Shab-e Yalda. Kabul residents honored these ritual nights through diverse musical and performative expressions. For instance, Shab-e Barat was often marked by devotional hymns and the singing of religious chants (Sadai Afghan News Agency, 2012). On Yalda Night—the longest night of the year—families prepared a spread of fresh and dried fruits and spent the night with storytelling, reciting the Shahnameh, poetry reading, and performing various songs until dawn. In domestic settings, family members—especially women and girls—gathered and celebrated the night with local songs and melodies, many of which were their own compositions (Naderi, 2012, Kabulnat, No. 159).

Another major cultural observance was Independence Day, celebrated annually on 19 August (28 Asad). Following Afghanistan’s regained independence in 1919, (Ghubar, 1989, p. 756) this occasion was marked each year with great enthusiasm by successive governments and the public, a tradition that continued with considerable grandeur until the early 1990s. Although Independence Day festivities across the country featured music, dancing, atan, and collective celebration, the events in Kabul were especially spectacular. The celebrations often lasted several nights, during which joyful, romantic, heroic, and patriotic songs were performed. The primary venue was Chaman-e Hozori in Kabul, where multiple “camps” were erected for musical performances. In these camps, local, popular, and classical ensembles—featuring renowned singers such as Ustad Sarahang, Ustad Shaida, Ustad Mahwash, Ahmad Zahir, Sarban, Zahir Howaida, Zaland, Qamar Gul, Ustad Dari, Beeltun, and others—performed for large audiences. Entry to these camps was free, allowing anyone to attend the performances they preferred. Musicians from neighboring countries were also invited to participate. During these nights, Kabul transformed into the most crowded and vibrant city in Afghanistan, and visitors delighted in the music, local dances, atan, and various traditional performances and games.

The Sufi or khānaqāh music of Kabul followed its own independent trajectory of development. This musical tradition was performed in two primary forms: qawwali and na‘t recitation, which were presented either without instruments or accompanied by musical instruments. In the khānaqāhs of the Chishtiyya order in particular, qawwali and na‘t recitation were typically performed with instrumental accompaniment. The khānaqāh served as a gathering place for Sufis and devotees, who met on evenings or Fridays to engage in dhikr, supplication, and the recitation of devotional poetry.

Another branch of religious music was Ramadan music, a long-standing rural tradition practiced in the villages around Kabul, especially during the holy month of Ramadan. At night, rural youth would play drums or other percussive instruments while singing the well-known melody “Ramazān rafta-rafta bāz āmad” (“Ramadan, little by little, has returned”). In return, they received gifts—such as dried fruits, boiled eggs, local sweets, and occasionally money—from the households they visited as a customary ramazānī offering (Monis, 2011, p. 66).

Alongside these traditions, domestic music formed another dimension of the popular artistic culture of Kabul’s households, in which women played the central role. This genre encompassed songs performed during family celebrations such as birthdays, circumcision ceremonies, weddings, engagements, and other festive events. These songs were usually performed collectively, though at times individually, and were accompanied by the daf or improvised household instruments. Songs such as Astâbro, Bâdâ Bâdâ, Henna Biyârind, Khudâ Mubârak Konad, Shâkoko Jân, Gol Biyârind, and various other joyful melodies were part of this tradition. The lyrics were often romantic chahar-bayti and do-bayti verses, sometimes deeply emotive. Today, these songs are still widespread in many provinces and are familiar to people throughout the country. Many of them were later performed by both amateur and classical vocalists after the establishment of Radio Kabul.

The establishment of Radio Kabul in 1940 (1320 SH)—later renamed Radio Afghanistan—had a profound impact on the development of Kabul’s local and urban musical culture. With the advent of radio, many young men entered the field of Afghan music, although women’s participation progressed slowly due to social resistance to women’s public musical activity, especially on radio. However, ongoing cultural transformations gradually opened this path for women (Bailey, 2016, p25).

During this period, numerous singers and instrumentalists emerged across the fields of pop, classical, and folk music. Musical instruments such as the synthesizer, electric guitars, drum sets, and wind instruments including the flute, saxophone, and trumpet—alongside traditional and classical Afghan instruments—gave Kabul’s music a new character and played an active role in musical concerts of the era. At this time, two major orchestras were formed at Radio Afghanistan—Orchestra No. 1 and Orchestra No. 2, under the direction of Ustad Sarmast and Ustad Nengyali—which brought together national and international instruments. Many of the country’s pop artists recorded their songs with these orchestras. As Danilo notes:

“The Radio Afghanistan Orchestra was a modern, newly established ensemble. They performed a type of music known as ‘Raqs-e Shāmist,’ which was played collectively and integrated instruments from various regions of the country. Its melodic style belonged to the musical traditions of the Kabul outskirts, closely connected to the areas near the border with Pakistan” (Danilo, 2003, p. 6).

Folk music also flourished and enjoyed strong state support, bringing together numerous artists from different ethnic groups at the radio. The folk music of the northern regions surrounding Kabul—such as Istalif, Charikar, and Parwan—as well as the southeastern folk music of Logar, which is considered part of Kabul’s musical tradition, formed the core of Radio Afghanistan’s folk repertoire. These musical styles also played an essential role in enlivening the public festivals and celebrations of the city. In particular, Ustad Dari Logari, Momin Khan Beeltun, Gol Mohammad Istalifi, Hamidullah Charikari, Salam Logari, and Zaman Shawqi were highly popular among the people of Kabul.

In addition to these, private event bands constituted another significant aspect of Kabul’s musical culture. These groups, generally part of Kabul’s pop music scene, performed with instruments such as keyboards, guitars, drum sets, saxophones, and trumpets. They were actively involved in providing music for private celebrations—birthdays, circumcision ceremonies, weddings, and festive gatherings—and received fixed payments for their services. Their office signs were commonly seen throughout the city center.

On the other side of the city lay Kharabat, Kabul, which was regarded as one of the most important historical centers for the education, production, and continuation of classical music in Afghanistan. This historic site had long served as a gathering place and residence for musicians. Shaoor, citing Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur, writes: "During his reign, the people of music resided in the Sang-Kesh neighborhood of Kabul, and this situation continued until the time of Timur Shah" (Shaoor, 2002).

However, from the reign of Emir Sher Ali Khan onward, Kharabat gained renewed prominence with the arrival of a greater number of Indian musicians to Kabul. This prominence continued through the reign of King Mohammad Zahir Shah and later during the government of Sardar Mohammad Daoud until the 1990s. During this period, Kharabat witnessed the significant growth and development of Indian classical music in Afghanistan. Many young people came to this place to study music, and after performing the ritual of Germani in an official ceremony attended by master musicians and prominent artists, they were formally accepted as disciples of one of Kharabat’s renowned masters. At Kharabat, students were trained in singing as well as in instruments such as the tabla, sitar, rabab, tanbur, delruba, sarang, dohol, harmonium, and other classical instruments. Afghanistan’s greatest classical and ghazal musicians—including Ustad Qasim, Ustad Ghulam Hussain, Ustad Shaida, Ustad Chacheh Mahmoud, Ustad Nato, Ustad Sarahang, Ustad Hashim, Ustad Rahim Bakhsh, and many others—taught at Kharabat in addition to their official duties at the royal court and Radio Kabul, playing a key role in the preservation and dissemination of classical music. Instruction at Kharabat was based on Indian ragas and followed the system of tat and raga. The most beautiful and popular form of Kabul’s music was the ghazal, which enjoyed many devoted followers and remains one of the most important classical music genres in Afghanistan. As John Baily notes: "A form of musical art has emerged in Kabul that has an Afghan style, which can be called the Kabul ghazal" (Baily, 2010, pp. 38–94). In addition to teaching music and performing at the royal court and on Radio Afghanistan, Kharabat musicians were actively involved in public celebrations. Their participation in weddings and social gatherings provided them with a significant source of income. Among these musicians, Hamahang and Amani were particularly popular local singers in Kabul. Furthermore, renowned ghazal and classical vocalists such as Ustad Shaida, Ustad Sarahang, and Ustad Rahim Bakhsh occasionally performed at these gatherings upon the request of their admirers, presenting their most beloved songs.

The Kharabat area was also regarded as the largest center for the construction and repair of Afghan musical instruments, where several traditional workshops, owned by the Qadri family, operated. These workshops specialized in the production of indigenous Afghan instruments, as well as in the repair and tuning of harmoniums and pianos. Ayub and Baba Sharif were among the most prominent figures in this profession, renowned for their exceptional skill in tuning harmoniums and pianos. They also produced high-quality harmoniums, which were sold at higher prices. Many of the harmoniums used by prominent Afghan ghazal and classical musicians were crafted by these masters. In addition to these workshops, music instrument shops were active in Kharabat and other parts of Kabul. Several shops, owned by members of the Afghan Hindu community in Mandawi, imported instruments from India and sold them in Kabul’s markets. Traditional local instruments commonly used in the past included the naqareh, harmonium, rubab, dohol, surna, tolah, tanbur, and daf. The harmonium, in particular, became widely popular in Kabul’s music from the reign of Amir Habibullah Khan onward, and especially after the 1920s. This instrument played a pivotal role in the evolution and dissemination of both local and urban music in Kabul, gradually becoming one of the core elements of Afghan music.

Conclusion

The musical heritage of Kabul represents a vibrant tapestry of cultural, social, and historical influences, reflecting the city’s position as a crossroads of tradition and innovation. From rural villages to urban streets, and from family gatherings to khānaqāhs, Kabul’s music has served multiple social functions—entertainment, celebration, spiritual practice, and the preservation of collective memory. Rural music, including wedding songs, work chants, and agrarian melodies, provided a framework for communal cohesion, seasonal rituals, and daily labor, while domestic music—predominantly performed by women—created an intimate space for familial and local cultural expression. Religious music, including qawwali, na‘t, and Ramadan melodies, infused the city’s sonic landscape with spiritual and ceremonial significance. The establishment of Radio Kabul in 1941 marked a turning point in the development and dissemination of music in the city, enabling orchestral performances, the incorporation of new instruments, and the gradual inclusion of women in public musical life. Kharabat remained the historic heart of classical music education, ensuring the continuity of Indian classical traditions and producing generations of skilled vocalists and instrumentalists. Local folk, urban, and popular music continued to flourish alongside classical forms, supported both by state patronage and popular demand. Together, these interconnected practices illustrate how Kabul’s music embodies cultural resilience, adaptation, and creativity. It reflects the city’s ability to integrate indigenous traditions with external influences, creating a uniquely Afghan musical identity that continues to resonate in contemporary performances. Understanding this rich musical ecosystem provides valuable insight into the broader social and cultural history of Kabul, highlighting the enduring role of music as both a marker of heritage and a medium for ongoing cultural expression.

References

Afghan Voice Agency (AVA). (2012). Customs and Traditions of Kabul Residents on the Night of Barat (Mid-Sha‘ban). Retrieved from https://www.avapress.com/fa/report/44605

Bailey, John. (2010). The Music of Afghanistan and the Professional Musicians of the City of Herat. Translated by Nasruddin Saljooqi. Kabul: Baihaqi Publishing.

Baily, John. (2016). War, Exile and the Music of Afghanistan: The Ethnographer's Tale. Taylor & Francis. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-315-46692-7.

Danielou, Alain. (2003). A Music Anthology of the Orient. London: Baren Rreiter Musicaphone Kassel Basel.

Ghubar, Gholam Mohammad. (1989). Afghanistan dar Masir-e Tarikh [Afghanistan on the Path of History]. Tehran: Markaz-e Nashr-e Enqelab

Moones, Mohammad Mateen. (2011). Sufism and Mysticism in the Poems of Contemporary Mystics. Kabul: Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan.

Naderi, Partaw. (2012). The True Dawn Will Not Break Until “Yalda Night” Ends. Serial No. 159, Year 7, Jadi 1390 (January 1, 2012). Retrieved from https://www.kabulnath.de/Salae_Haftom/Shoumare_159/partau%20naderi-4.html

Shaur, Asadullah. (2002). The History of the Kabul Kharabat Quarter. Kabul Nâtera, No. 40, Year 2. https://www.kabulnath.de/Salae_Doum/Shoumare_40/Dr.A.Shour_Kharabat_2.html