Atheism: Definition and Concepts

**Atheism Throughout History**

Atheism is the denial of the existence of God—Almighty. An atheist is one who entirely rejects the existence of a deity or creator of the universe, believing instead that the universe created itself and that nature is the source of everything around us, including humans. Atheists hold that anything unprovable by empirical science does not exist and that what the mind cannot perceive or conceptualize cannot be proven to exist. They claim to rely on the "light of reason," but in reality, they are entrenched in the darkness of ignorance.

Some believe in a deity who created the universe but then abandoned it; this is known as **deism**. Those who find the evidence for and against a creator equally balanced are termed **agnostics**, as they neither affirm nor deny the existence of a creator.

Atheism, or the denial of a deity, is not a modern phenomenon. Its roots stretch deep into history, though it has manifested in varying forms and dimensions across eras, influenced by the cultural, social, and intellectual contexts in which it emerged. Let us explore the evolution of atheism throughout history in detail.

**Atheism in Ancient Civilizations**

**(A) Primitive Atheism**

- In primitive societies, atheism was rare due to the dominance of spirituality and humanity’s fear of nature. People worshipped deities linked to natural forces (the sun, moon, fire), making it difficult to deny these gods. However, instances of atheism or doubt in deities occasionally arose due to social crises or natural disasters.

**(B) Atheism in Sumerian and Babylonian Civilizations**

- Despite the prevalence of religious beliefs in these civilizations, some texts suggest individuals questioned the role of gods or rejected their authority. Certain Babylonian records document dissatisfaction with the gods or accusations of their injustice.

**(C) Atheism in Ancient Greece**

- Most people believed in a supreme deity, though polytheism and idolatry were widespread. The Greek historian Plutarch remarked, *“We may find cities without walls, without kings, without wealth, without morals, or theaters, but never a city without temples where worship is practiced.”* The Greeks labeled as "atheist" anyone who did not believe in *their* gods—even if they acknowledged a higher deity. Similarly, the Romans used the term for Jews and Christians, who rejected Roman polytheism.

- Outright denial of a deity was rare and considered intellectually deviant. Early Greek philosophers like Democritus and Epicurus were among the first to present ideas skeptical of the gods’ existence or role in the universe.

- **Epicurus (341–270 BCE)** denied the existence of God through a sophistical argument centered on the problem of evil and divine purpose. He posited that if gods existed, they were indifferent to humans, asserting that nature operates by mechanical laws, not divine intervention.

- **Protagoras (490–420 BCE)** famously declared: *“I cannot know whether the gods exist or not.”*

Atheism in the Middle Ages:

During the Middle Ages, particularly in Europe, religious thought held absolute dominance. Any idea that contradicted the existence of God or challenged the Church was met with suppression and severe punishment. Nonetheless, some atheistic ideas emerged in the form of secret movements or within philosophical writings that attempted to explain the universe independently of religious frameworks.

Atheism in the Islamic World:

• In the Islamic world, atheism was rare but manifested as philosophical inquiries and ideas posed by certain thinkers. For instance, Ibn al-Rawandi was among the earliest intellectuals to express doubts about Islamic doctrine, authoring texts that denied the existence of God. However, these ideas were rejected and refuted by Islamic scholars.

• The works of Muslim philosophers such as Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Al-Farabi were marked by rationalist influences, though they did not deny God’s existence. Overall, they emphasized that reason could reinforce faith.

Atheism in Europe:

• Following the split of Christianity into two warring sects—Catholics and Protestants—and after centuries of the Church’s control over all aspects of life, including the sale of indulgences as a means to dictate access to heaven and hell, widespread injustice and persecution—especially against scholars whose discoveries clashed with Church doctrine—and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, atheistic thought began to emerge. Over three centuries, theories supporting atheism gradually gained traction, eventually achieving acceptance in many Western societies. Figures like Giordano Bruno, executed for rejecting traditional Christian dogmas, became symbols of this shift.

• Through European colonial campaigns, atheistic ideas began to infiltrate Islamic societies, albeit covertly and incrementally. This often involved critiquing minor religious practices before progressing to core tenets, ultimately challenging the fundamental belief in the existence of God.

The Renaissance and Enlightenment:

(A) The Scientific Revolution:

• In the 17th century, as modern science rose to prominence through figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton, humanity began to view the universe as a machine governed by fixed laws. This scientific climate encouraged some to argue that the cosmos could be explained without invoking a divine being.

(B) Enlightenment and Philosophical Atheism:

• During the Enlightenment (18th century), philosophical atheism gained prominence. Thinkers such as Voltaire, David Hume, and Denis Diderot launched scathing critiques of religion and the Church.

• Baron d’Holbach emerged as a leading atheist of the era. His book The System of Nature served as a manifesto for atheism, advocating the rejection of religion as superstition.

Atheism in the 19th Century:

(A) Philosophical Influence:

• Key philosophers in this era included Friedrich Nietzsche, who declared “God is dead” in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, arguing that modern humanity no longer needed God to explain the world or morality. Karl Marx linked atheism to Marxist theory, famously labeling religion “the opium of the masses”—a tool used by ruling classes to pacify the populace.

(B) The Theory of Evolution:

• Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) ignited fierce debate. Atheists saw evolutionary theory as an alternative explanation for creation, bolstering their arguments.

Atheism in the 20th Century:

(A) Ideological Atheism:

Atheism became integral to totalitarian ideologies like communism. States such as the Soviet Union and China enforced atheism as official doctrine, shuttering religious institutions and persecuting believers. With the USSR openly combating religious practices and socialist nations sending secular-minded envoys abroad, atheism began to influence some minds. Students returning from these nations often brought back atheistic ideas. Meanwhile, in the West, atheism was framed as a celebration of science over religion.

(B) Religious Criticism:

• British philosopher Bertrand Russell critiqued religion in works like Why I Am Not a Christian, dismissing it as illogical. Atheism evolved to encompass movements advocating rationalism and secularism. Contradictions in Logic and Science:

New Atheists often present ideas that defy reason and logic. While claiming to rely on scientific methodology to explain life and the universe, their arguments frequently devolve into unsubstantiated philosophies and speculations. For example, they dismiss the existence of a cosmic designer because it cannot be scientifically proven, yet paradoxically propose that alien beings "seeded" life on Earth—a notion that contradicts scientific, rational, and logical principles.

Moreover, they fail to provide logical alternatives to the concept of God or religion, nor do they offer coherent explanations for morality, innate instincts, or consciousness.

The Paradox of Justice and Evolution:

New Atheists claim that secular atheism aims to establish justice among humanity. Yet this contradicts the principles of the evolutionary theory they espouse, which upholds "survival of the fittest," even if achieved through injustice and cruelty. The pursuit of justice also clashes with the core tenet of evolutionary theory: conflict as the driving force of progress.

Furthermore, the concept of justice inherently contradicts atheistic relativism. If justice is an absolute value, it challenges atheism’s rejection of absolutes. If justice is relative, however, there can be no objective basis for condemning opposing views. In reality, justice is a divine mandate, rooted in religious law rather than human subjectivity. What constitutes justice is defined by divine principles, not individual perspectives.

Hypocrisy and Intellectual Extremism:

Secular atheist "priests" claim to liberate people from religious extremism and terrorism, yet they themselves practice intellectual extremism, labeling dissenters as backward. A prime example is the Darwinian lobby’s pressure on scientists to endorse evolutionary theory, while vilifying and ostracizing those who support intelligent design.

New Atheism is less about constructing a coherent worldview and more about dismantling religious beliefs by sowing doubts about their core tenets. It specifically targets youth, employing mockery and ridicule of sacred traditions while offering no logical alternatives to religion. Its proponents openly criticize religion, publishing widely circulated books that promote atheism.