The Future of Energy: Exploring Alternative Renewable Sources and Cutting-Edge Technologies from Nano to Fusion.

Abstract

As fossil fuels become increasingly scarce and nuclear fission creates a host of environmental hazards, the world is facing an energy crisis that has resulted in political, economic, industrial, social and even military turmoil. This leads us to explore alternative renewable sources such as solar power wind farms, hydroelectricity geothermal tidal waves but also new forms like nano-energy or fusion technology derived from matter/antimatter collisions with powerful lasers. The future lies within these cutting edge energies which not only safeguard our environment but offer cost effective solutions. The post-1950 emergence of nuclear fission plants represented a necessary evil, providing an essential bridge to cushion the impact of our reliance on oil which currently makes up 66% of global energy use. Unfortunately, this means that at current usage levels we only have 40 more years left before it's gone - leaving us in urgent need for alternative sources to avert disaster. This paper aims to explore potential new solutions and technologies such as electron movement around atomic nuclei already being used across numerous engineering fields today Electronic engineering has revolutionized countless industries and applications. We can explore the depths of outer space with aeronautic technology, observe complex cellular structures with micro-technology, utilize nuclear power for energy needs, create intricate telecommunications networks by combining computing and automation - really the list goes on! However in this paper we focus specifically on a new development from within electronic engineering: determining two energetically below levels that form an electronic layer based on Bohr's calculations to calculate electron radius around the atomic nucleus.The author has proposed a brand-new atomic model that reveals the mysterious nature of electron clouds and could revolutionize high-energy laser technology. It provides new insight into our understanding of quantum theory, promising extraordinary possibilities in application and engineering.

Introduction

Energy development is a vital part of modern life, providing the energy resources and services that are necessary for societies to thrive. From powering transportation systems to enabling us to live in comfort despite extreme climates through heating/ventilation/air conditioning (HVAC), these external sources play an integral role in making our lives easier — however access can vary from society to society depending on cost, traffic congestion, pollution levels and availability of domestic production.

The entire terrestrial energy we use today originates from the Sun's power, whether directly as solar insolation or indirectly through fossil fuels formed over millions of years from plant and animal life. All these sources are inexorably linked to our star - an immense nuclear fusion reactor in the sky that drives all earthly activity with its boundless potential for renewable resources.

Ancient energy powers our modern world - at the very core of the planet, radioactive materials produced in supernova explosions billions of years ago are being harnessed for geothermal power. Meanwhile, erstwhile elements from Earth's crust fueled by nuclear fission supply us with electricity and warmth today. On a more cosmic scale still, renewable sources like sunlight and wind offer an unlimited source of natural energy to maintain our way of life into perpetuity.

In 2008, renewable energy made a major contribution to the world's total final energy consumption. A whopping 19% came from traditional biomass for heating and hydroelectricity combined with an additional 2.7% attributed to modern sources of renewables such as small-scale hydropower systems, wind turbines, solar PV panels and geothermal plants. Not only is this trend growing rapidly but it has also been further supported by significant investment in renewable electricity generation technology – most notably wind power which increased at 30% year on year since 2009 culminating in 158GW being installed worldwide across Europe, Asia & America.

As we usher in a new decade, the world is shifting towards renewable energy sources. Cumulative global photovoltaic (PV) installations have surpassed 21 GW and power stations are popularly found in Germany and Spain for solar thermal production. The largest of these being the 354 MW SEGS plant located in California's Mojave Desert - surpassing even Brazil's vast program involving ethanol fuel from sugar cane which provides 18% of their automotive needs to date! Ethanol fuel has made its mark on America too; with it now readily available as one of their primary motor fuels while they hold title as the absolute highest producer worldwide.

As the world faces increasing challenges from climate change, renewable energy has become a crucial part of humanity's development. Small-scale projects have proven to be an effective way to bring electricity and clean fuel sources into rural areas - for example, 3 million households get power from solar PV systems while 30 million use biomass cook stoves or biogas digesters as their source of light and cooking. Governments are beginning to increasingly support these ventures through legislation as well as incentives in order to make meaningful progress towards reducing emissions that cause global warming.

Government interventions played a major role in shielding the energy industry from the 2009 economic downturn, allowing it to remain stable when other sectors struggled. Likewise, modern societies rely heavily on external primary and secondary sources of energy for everyday life: transportation, manufacturing goods and services are only possible by harnessing these potent forces that allow humans to thrive under otherwise inhospitable climates through heating technology.

Solar energy is at the heart of all terrestrial power sources, from fossil fuels that were once living organisms to geothermal and nuclear energies derived from long-dead stars. Without the burning brilliance of our nearest star, life on Earth would not exist as it does today.

Renewable energy is on the rise! In 2009, wind power saw a 30% annual growth and had an installed capacity of 158 GW globally. This trend continued into 2010 when solar photovoltaic (PV) installations surpassed 21GW, with PV stations in Germany and Spain leading the pack. Solar thermal plants were also popping up across Europe and North America - none bigger than The Geysers in California which boasts 750MW rated capacity as well as being one of the largest geothermal sites worldwide. All these developments indicate an exciting future for renewable sources that could very soon provide us with sustainable power solutions.

Brazil is known for its exceptional renewable energy program that is one of the largest in the world. This program primarily involves the production of ethanol fuel, which is made from sugar cane. Currently, ethanol fuel accounts for 18% of Brazil's automotive fuel, making it a significant contributor to the country's energy mix.

In the United States, ethanol fuel is also widely available, given that the country is the world's largest producer of this type of fuel in absolute terms. However, it is not a significant percentage of the country's total motor fuel usage.

Renewable energy projects are often large-scale, but they are also well-suited to rural and remote areas where energy is essential for human development. Globally, approximately three million households rely on small solar PV systems to access electricity. Furthermore, micro-hydro systems configured into village-scale or county-scale mini-grids serve several areas.

Additionally, over 30 million rural households worldwide receive lighting and cooking services from biogas produced in household-scale digesters. Furthermore, biomass cook stoves are used by a staggering 160 million households worldwide.

Materials and methods

Wind power

Using airflows to spin wind turbines is a smart move. The turbines themselves come in various sizes, with modern models ranging from 600 kW to a whopping 5 MW of power! However, the 1.5-3 MW range is the most commonly used for commercial purposes. It's worth noting that wind speed plays a massive role in determining how much power a turbine generates - in fact, it's directly proportional to the cube of the wind speed. This means that as the wind picks up, the power output jumps up dramatically! When it comes to capacity, most turbines hover between 20-40%, with the high end reserved for particularly advantageous locations. There's no doubt that wind energy is the greenest, most sustainable, and cheapest power source around. Plus, it's incredibly safe to use! If there isn't enough space on land, we can always build wind farms offshore. We just need to put that wind to work

Hydropower

Hydroelectric power stations offer several benefits as a source of renewable energy. One significant advantage is their remarkable longevity, with many current plants operating for over a century. Furthermore, hydroelectric power generation is an environmentally friendly process that produces minimal emissions, making it a clean and sustainable source of electricity.

By harnessing the power of water to generate electricity, hydroelectric plants offer a renewable and reliable energy source that does not contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. As compared to other renewable energy sources, such as wind or solar power, hydroelectric plants provide a stable and consistent power supply that is not influenced by weather conditions.

Solar Energy

Solar panels work by changing packets of light energy (also known as photons) into electrical power. Solar energy comes from the sun through the process of solar radiation. Generating electricity using the sun's energy depends on photo voltaic and heat engines. There are many other ways solar energy can be used such as heating and cooling buildings with solar architecture, daylighting, cooking food with solar ovens, and creating high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.

Now, Strano's nanotube antenna takes things to the next level by increasing the number of photons that can be captured and turning them into energy that can be sent to a solar cell. It's like adding a turbo boost to the solar power system

Biomass

Biomass, or plant material, is a totally renewable energy source. It's pretty cool because the energy inside it actually comes from the sun! Through this process called photosynthesis, plants suck up the sun's energy and store it up inside. Then, when we burn the plants, they release all that stored-up solar energy. It's kind of like a natural battery, right?

Now, the trick to keeping this battery charged forever is to make sure we only use as much biomass as we grow. It's all about sustainability, baby! Lucky for us, there are two main ways we can use plants for energy production. First, we can grow plants specifically for energy use. Or, we can use the leftovers from plants that are used for other stuff.

The best way to approach this whole energy-from-plants situation depends on where you are. Different regions have different climates, soils, and geography. So, what works in one place might not work in another.

Biofuel

Biofuels come in two main types: bio alcohol, like bioethanol, and oil, like biodiesel. Bioethanol is created by fermenting the sugar in plants, usually from crops with lots of sugar and starch. But now, thanks to new technology, scientists can also use cellulosic biomass, which is made from things like trees and grasses, to make ethanol.

When it comes to using ethanol as a fuel for cars, it can be used on its own, but it's more commonly mixed with gasoline to help boost its power and reduce pollution. In fact, bioethanol is a popular fuel choice in both the US and Brazil

Geothermal Energy

The geothermal energy from the core of the Earth is closer to the surface in some areas than in others. Where hot underground steam or water can be tapped and brought to the surface it may be used to generate electricity.

Such geothermal power sources exist in certain geologically unstable parts of the world such as Chile, Iceland, New Zealand, United States, the Philippines and Italy.

The two most prominent areas for this in the United States are in the Yellowstone basin and in northern California.

Tidal Energy

You can grab some sweet tidal power straight from the Moon's gravitational pull, baby! All you gotta do is set up a turbine in the current of those groovy tides, or throw up a dam with a pond that can let water flow through the turbine. That turbine can crank up an electric generator or gas compressor to store that energy for later use, man. Talk about a righteous source of clean, free, renewable, and sustainable energy - those coastal tides are where it's at

Hydrogen Obtained by Artificial Photosynthesis

Artificial photosynthesis is all about copying nature's way of turning sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into oxygen and carbohydrates. In fact, when you use sunlight to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, some folks even call that artificial photosynthesis too. The first step in this process is called photo-oxidation, which is key to separating water molecules and releasing hydrogen and oxygen ions. These ions are needed to turn carbon dioxide into a fuel, but that only works if an external catalyst is present. This catalyst needs to be quick and able to absorb sunlight constantly. The idea is to make a fuel source that's kind of like an artificial plant.

The really great thing about artificial photosynthesis is that it can produce renewable, carbon-neutral fuel, like hydrogen or carbohydrates. This is different from other renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectric, solar photovoltaic, geothermal, and wind power, which only generate electricity and don't produce any fuel. That makes artificial photosynthesis a really important potential source of fuel for transportation. Plus, it doesn't need farmland like biomass energy, so it won't compete with food supplies.

Another advantage of artificial photosynthesis is that it can help reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which would help to mitigate global warming. This happens because the light-independent phase of photosynthesis captures carbon dioxide from the air, which can then be used to make fuel. When carbon-based fuel is made using artificial photosynthesis and stored indefinitely, the net amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is reduced. So, it's a win-win situation for everyone!

Blacklight Power

Dr. Randell L. Mills started working on the theory that forms the basis of the BlackLight Process back in 1986. Then, in 1989, he filed the original patent applications and published the findings of his theoretical work. According to Dr. Mills, he's managed to unify gravity with atomic physics, which he considers a great success.

Waves Power

Wave power is when the energy of ocean surface waves is harnessed to do useful work, like making electricity or desalinating water, by capturing that energy. This is different from tidal power, which comes from the daily ebb and flow of the tides, and from the steady circular motion of ocean currents.

Even though people have been trying to use wave power since 1890, it hasn't become a widespread commercial technology just yet. But in 2008, the first experimental wave farm was set up at the Aguçadoura Wave Park in Portugal, which was a step in the right direction.

THE NANO ENERGY FROM MATTER AND ANTIMATTER

We can get energy that's clean, cheap, and not risky by annihilating particles, like electrons and antielectrons (positrons) (Petrescu and Petrescu, 2014, 2011). First, we take the particles from atoms, which uses hardly any energy. Then, we bring them together (collision) and they annihilate, turning all their mass into energy (gamma photons). We get as many gamma photons as we need to get all the energy from the particles, usually two or three (if we have a low annihilation) or more (if we have a high annihilation). Even though the rest energy of an electron-positron pair is just over 1 MeV (a lot for such small particles), it's still comparable to the energy created by merging much larger particles with 2000 times more rest mass.

So, the new method proposed has a major advantage over hot or cold fusion, which can only extract a tiny fraction of the particle's rest mass (usually only about a thousandth). When two particles fuse, only the energy gap between them is released, and it's not much. But with the proposed method, we can extract almost all the internal energy of the annihilated particles.

We started with electron-positron pairs because they're small and easy to extract from atoms (which naturally regenerate afterward, making this a renewable energy source). The next step is to test the annihilation between a proton and an antiproton. Since their mass is about 1800 times higher than electrons and positrons, their annihilation can produce energy about 1000 times higher (1 GeV instead of 1 MeV). However, we still need to donate some of the energy ourselves since creating antiprotons requires accelerating particles to very high energy levels and colliding them.

Yo, let's talk about the real deal when it comes to comparing deuterons fusion and annihilation process of a hydrogen ion with an antiproton. And let me tell you, the difference in energy is like a thousand times higher in favor of the annihilation process, no cap.

This method is like the holy grail of getting energy from all matter, straight up. And you know what's even better? No radioactive substances or radioactive waste from the process. We only get gamma photons (energy) and some other lit mini particles. It's totally safe for humans and the environment, no need to stress.

The energy produced is clean AF and the technology needed is way simpler and cheaper than nuclear (fission or fusion), making it super easy to maintain. The annihilation process gives us all the energy we need, it's basically unlimited and renewable immediately (sustainable), all while keeping the technology simple.

We can even extract energy from the rest mass of an electron, like dang, that's some powerful stuff right there. And let's not forget about the synchrotron radiation (synchrotron light source), which is just totally lit, ya feel me? The electrons get accelerated at high speeds in multiple stages to get that final energy boost in the GeV range

You gotta have two synchrotrons - one for zippy electrons and one for speedy positrons.

Once those particles are revved up to their prime energy level, it's collision time!

All the energy from the particles is gathered up after the head-on collision at the exit of the synchrotrons.

This means we get the power from the accelerated energy, plus the leftover energy from the electrons and positrons.

If we can get even half the possible collisions, we're talking a mega-energy rate of 10^19 electrons per second and around 7 GWh per year.

You can hit that high rate with 60 pulses a minute and 10^19 electrons per pulse or 600 pulses per minute and 10^18 electrons per pulse.

If we crank up the flow rate a thousand times over, we're talking a whopping 7 TWh per year! This type of energy can team up with fusion energy to replace the old-school hydrocarbon burning method.

And get this - unlike nuclear fission reactors, annihilation of an electron with a positron means no radioactive waste, explosion risk, or chain reactions to worry about.

Energy from the rest mass of the electron is way easier to control than the hot or cold fusion reaction.

No enriched radioactive fuel needed here, unlike in nuclear fission. Instead, deuterium, lithium, and accelerated neutrons (like in cold fusion) are used, along with high temperatures and pressures (as in hot fusion), and so on.

Discussion

Ever wondered how much energy we could harness from the inside of matter? Well, according to Einstein's theory, a mere kilogram of matter can produce enough energy to power the entire Earth for a year! Check out EQ

E=m.c2=1[kg].

That's a whopping 9.1016 joules, or 2.5.1010 KWh, or 2.5.107 MWh, or 2.5.104 GWh, or even 25 TWh!

It could do this, but only if one could extract all the energy from inside the matter.

Through nuclear fusion reaction can be extracted only a part of the rest energy of the particles used. This drop of energy (1 / 1000 of the mass energy of a proton-neutron pair) is called discrepancy.

For a kg of particles proton-neutron pairs, fusion energy is about a thousand times smaller than the total energy of a kilogram of matter (only 29 [GWh] from the total internal energy, 25 [TWh]); and considering that a return of 100% fusion reaction, which can’t be done anyway.

Theoretically speaking, we can’t draw from within the matter (through nuclear fusion reaction) than at most the thousandth part of its energy. Having in view the yield of the nuclear fusion reaction, this obtained energy is and less.

Through the reaction of nuclear fission, the energies obtained will be even smaller.

The solution proposed in this work, obtaining energy by the mutual annihilation of two opposite particles, makes possible the requirement of extracting whole energy contained in matter.

A pair formed by a particle and its antiparticle, are brought side by side, at a distance which allows the process of reciprocal annihilation.

To increase the yield of the annihilation reaction (the number of annihilated particles from all particles that exist), we can accelerate the particles and antiparticles separately, and then we may send them into a room where they encounter annihilation at speeds and energies high, or at velocities and energies very high.

If one uses electrons and positrons for the reaction of annihilation, it results in photons of the gamma type.

In this case, to prevent the possible decay of the obtained photons, again into electrons and positrons (for beginning of this annihilation process with success), the antiparticles and particles used in the process of annihilation, should be collided at low speeds and with low energy.

One can test then the optimum energy particle which permits the reaction with the maxim yield. It is necessary that most particles and antiparticles be used, to meet and annihilate each other, and it should be stable as many of the obtained gamma particles.

It must rush to implement the additional sources of energy already known, but find new energy sources. In these conditions the proposed method to obtain energy by annihilation of matter and antimatter, can be a real alternative sources of renewable energy.

NUCLEAR FUSION NANO ENERGY

For over six decades now, researchers have been exploring controlled fusion as a potential source of electricity production. Despite many scientific and technological hurdles, there has been some progress in this area. However, the reality is that as of yet, controlled fusion reactions have not been able to produce self-sustaining reactions that break-even.

Even though scientists had originally set a target of 2018 for workable designs that could deliver ten times the fusion energy required to heat plasma to necessary temperatures, they have not been successful, and there is no new date for when this might happen. Clearly, this is a complex and challenging area of study that requires much more research before it can become a practical reality.

Forcing nuclei to fuse ain't easy, not even for the lightest element, hydrogen. Why? Well, all nuclei get a positive charge from their protons, so they strongly repel each other due to the like charges. But, if you heat them to thermonuclear temperatures and accelerate them to high speeds, they can finally overcome this repulsion and get close enough for the nuclear force to do its thing and achieve fusion. When lighter nuclei merge and create a heavier nucleus with a free neutron or proton, it generally releases more energy than it took to force them together. That means it's an exothermic process that can produce self-sustaining reactions

The US National Ignition Facility is a real powerhouse! With its laser-driven inertial confinement fusion, scientists believe it can achieve break-even fusion. Unlike chemical reactions, nuclear reactions release way more energy, thanks to the binding energy that keeps a nucleus intact. The binding energy is much greater than the energy that binds electrons to a nucleus. To put it into perspective, adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus gives you 13.6 eV, which is just a tiny fraction of the massive 17 MeV released in the deuterium-tritium (D-T) reaction shown in the diagram to the right.

Fusion reactions pack a serious punch compared to nuclear fission, no doubt about it. They give off way more energy per unit of mass than fission, even though individual fission reactions are generally more energetic than individual fusion ones. And if we're talking chemical reactions, well, it's not even a contest - fusion reactions are millions of times more energetic.

But hold up, there's something even more powerful than fusion: the direct conversion of mass into energy. This happens when matter and antimatter collide and annihilate each other. That's some serious sci-fi stuff right there.

Before fusion can even happen though, there's a major obstacle to overcome - electrostatic forces. When two naked nuclei are too far apart, their positively charged protons repel each other like two magnets with the same pole. So fusion requires a lot of energy to get those nuclei close enough to fuse.

If you get two nuclei cozy enough, they'll start to feel the love and forget about their electrostatic repulsion. This is all thanks to the strong attractive nuclear force, which comes in clutch when they're snuggled up close.

Now, when you add a nucleon like a proton or neutron to a nucleus, the nuclear force kicks in and attracts it to other nucleons. But the force is a bit shy, so it mainly sticks to its immediate neighbors because it doesn't have much range.

The nucleons on the inside of a nucleus are pretty social and have more nucleon friends than those on the surface.

As you might expect, smaller nuclei have a bigger surface area compared to their volume. This means that the binding energy per nucleon, thanks to the nuclear force, generally goes up as the size of the nucleus increases. But, it starts to level off at a certain point, kind of like how your appetite might level off after a few too many slices of pizza.

Before we get too excited about the picture above, it's important to remember that it's just a toy model. Nucleons are actually quantum objects, which means things can get pretty wacky. For example, if you have two identical neutrons in a nucleus, it's impossible to tell them apart. So, figuring out which one is on the surface and which one is chilling on the inside doesn't really make sense. To get accurate calculations, we need to bring in the big guns of quantum mechanics.

Now, let's talk about the electrostatic force. It's an inverse-square force, which basically means that a proton added to a nucleus will feel a bit repelled by all the other protons hanging out in there. The more protons there are, the stronger the repulsion gets.

Here's where things get a bit wonky: the electrostatic energy per nucleon, thanks to the electrostatic force, goes up and up and up without any limits as nuclei get larger. It's like that feeling you get when you're stuck in a tiny room with too many people - things just keep getting more uncomfortable the longer you're in there.

Cold Nuclear Fusion

It's time to shift our focus to cold nuclear fusion since achieving the scorching temperature required for hot fusion is still quite a challenge. To make this happen, we'll have to bombard the fuel with deuterium nuclei that are moving at high speeds. The fuel itself will be made using heavy water and lithium, and we'll have to experiment with the ideal proportion of lithium to use. Ideally, we'd like to keep the fuel in a plasma state.

When it comes to deuterium and tritium, the deuterium nucleus boasts the smallest radius.

Deuterium A=2 A1/3=1.259921 --> RD=1.8268855223476E-15 [m]

Tritium A=3 A1/3=1.44224957 --> RT=2.0912618769457E-15 [m]

One calculated the minimum distance between two particles which meet together. This is just the diameter of a deuterium nucleus, d12D (5.2).

d12D=2RD=2x1.8268855223476E-15[m]=3.6537710446952E-15[m]=3.653771E-15[m] (5.2)

The deuterium nuclei which will bomb the nuclear fuel, will be accelerated with the (least) energy which rejects the two neighboring deuterium nuclei (see the below relationship, 5.3).

U=Ep=q1q2/(4pe0d12)=(1.602E-19)2/(4p8.8541853E-12x

x3.653771E-15)=6.3128464855E-14[J]=6.3128464855E-14

x6.242E18[eV]=3.94E5[eV]=3.94E2[keV]=394[keV]